International 

Correspondence 

Schools 


SCRANTON,  PA. 


REO.  U.S.  PAT.OFf. 


INSTRUCTION  PAPER 

with  Examination  Questions 


FIRST  EDITION 


Horse  Judging 


1326 


INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 
SCRANTON,  PA. 


ADVICE  TO  THE  STUDENT 

You  learn  only  by  thinking.  Therefore,  read  your  lesson  slowly 
enough  to  think  about  what  you  read  and  try  not  to  think  of  anything 
else.  You  cannot  learn  about  a  subject,  while  thinking  about  other 
things.  Think  of  the  meaning  of  every  word  and  every  group  of 
words.  Sometimes  you  may  need  to  read  the  text  slowly  several  times 
in  order  to  understand  it  and  to  remember  the  thought  in  it.  This  is 
what  is  meant  by  study. 

Begin  with  the  first  line  on  page  1  and  study  every  part  of  the  lesson 
in  its  regular  order.  Do  not  skip  anything.  If  you  come  to  a  part  that 
you  cannot  understand  after  careful  study,  mark  it  in  some  way  and 
come  back  to  it  after  you  have  studied  parts  beyond  it.  If  it  still 
seems  puzzling,  write  to  us  about  it  on  one  of  our  Information  Blanks 
and  tell  us  just  what  you  do  not  understand. 

Pay  attention  to  words  or  groups  of  words  printed  in  black-face  type. 
They  are  important.  Be  sure  that  you  know  what  they  mean  and  that 
you  understand  what  is  said  about  them  well  enough  to  explain  them 
to  others. 

Rules  are  printed  in  italics;  they,  too,  are  important;  you  should 
learn  to  repeat  them  without  looking  at  the  book.  With  rules  are 
usually  given  Examples  for  Practice.  Work  all  of  these  examples 
according  to  the  rules,  but  do  not  send  us  your  work  if  you  are  able  to 
get  the  right  answers.  If  you  cannot  get  the  correct  answer  to  an 
example,  send  us  all  of  your  work  on  it  so  that  we  can  find  your  mis- 
takes.    Use  one  of  our  Information  Blanks. 

After  you  have  finished  studying  part  of  a  lesson,  review,  that  part ; 
that  is,  study  it  again.  Then  go  on  with  the  next  part.  When  you  have 
finished  studying  an  Instruction  Paper,  review  all  of  it.  Then  answer 
the  Examination  Questions  at  the  end  of  the  Paper.  It  is  not  well  to 
look  at  these  questions  until  you  have  finished  studying  and  reviewing 
the  whole  Paper. 

Answer  the  Examination  Questions  in  the  same  order  as  they  are 
given  and  number  your  answers  to  agree  with  the  question  numbers. 
Do  not  write  the  questions.  If  you  cannot  answer  a  question,  write  us 
about  it  on  an  Information  Blank  before  you  send  in  any  of  your 
answers. 

Remember  that  we  are  interested  in  your  progress  and  that  we  will 
give  you  by  correspondence  all  the  special  instruction  on  your  Course 
that  you  may  need  to  complete  it.  Remember,  too,  that  you  will  get 
more  good  from  your  Course  if  you  learn  all  that  you  can  without 
asking  for  help. 

[1^]  International  Correspondence  Schools 


Copyright,  1912,  by  International  Textbook  Cpmpany.    Copyriglit  in  Great  Britain 
All  rights  reserved 


HORSE  JUDGING 


INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS 

1.  Horse  judging  is  the  art  of  ascertaining  the  qualities 
of  a  horse  and  of  weighing  them  in  comparison  with  those  of 
other  horses  or  of  an  ideal  horse  in  the  mind  of  the  judge. 
As  the  term  is  commonly  used,  however,  its  specific  application 
is  somewhat  indefinite.  It  may  have  reference  to  the  judging 
of  horses  competing  in  a  show  ring  or  to  more  general  judging 
such  as  any  person  may  do  in  distinguishing  between  good 
and  inferior  animals.  Likewise,  the  term  a  judge  of  horses 
may  be  applied  either  to  a  person  that  is  sufficiently  proficient 
in  judging  to  officiate  in  the  show  ring,  or  to  one  that  is 
able,  through  more  or  less  knowledge  of  horses,  to  distinguish 
merits  and  demerits.  Show-ring  judging  is  an  art  that  requires 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  so-called  fancy  points  of  the 
particular  breed  or  class  to  be  judged,  and,  further,  is  of  direct 
interest  to  comparatively  few  persons.  For  this  reason, 
judging  will  be  discussed  in  this  Section  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  person  who  desires  merely  to  select  good  animals,  and 
reference  will  not  be  made  to  the  fancy  points  of  the  different 
breeds  and  classes. 

2.  The  Anatomy  as  a  Basis  of  Study  in  Horse  Judging. 

In  learning  to  judge  horses,  it  is  necessary  for  a  person  to 
study  the  horse  as  a  mechanism.  The  bones  should  be  con- 
sidered as  levers,  the  muscles  as  the  source  of  power,  and  the 
nervous  system  as  the  stimulator  of  the  muscles.  The  con- 
formation and  quality  of  the  bones,  the  depth  and  quality  of 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.       ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

§37 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


the  muscular  covering,  and  the  nature  of  the  nervous  system 
are  extremely  important  guides  to  the  fitness  of  a  horse  for 
a  particular  purpose. 

To  explain  the  anatomical  terms  that  are  necessary  in  a 
discussion  of  horse  judging,  a  view  of  the  skeleton  of  a  horse 
with  a  contour  view  of  the  body  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  bones, 
groups  of  bones,  and  joints  that  should  be  known  by  a  judge 
of  horses  are  numbered,  their  names  being  given  below. 


Bony  Anatoi 

viY  OF  THE  Horse 

1,  Lower  jaw 

21,  Accessory  carpal  bone 

f ,  Upper  jaw 

22,  Splint  bone 

3  to  3,  Cervical  vertebrae 

23,  Front  sesamoid  bones 

4  to  4,  Thoracic  vertebrae 

24,  Ilium 

5  to  5,  Lumbar  vertebrae 

25,  Hip  joint 

6  to  6^,  Sacrum 

26,  Ischium 

7  to  7,  Coccygeal  vertebrae 

27,  Femur 

8,  Scapula 

28,  Patella 

9,  Shoulder  joint 

29,  Stifle  joint 

10,  Humerus 

30,  Tibia 

11,  Elbow  joint 

31,  Os  calcis 

12,  Radius 

32,  Hock  joint 

13,  Knee  joint 

33,  Hind  cannon  bone 

14,  Front  cannon  bone 

34,  Hind  sesamoid  bones 

15,  Front  fetlock  joint 

35,  Hind  fetlock  joint 

16,  Front  pastern  bones 

36,  Hind  pastern  bones 

17,  Front  pastern  joint 

37,  Hind  pastern  joint 

18,  Front  coffin  joint 

38,  Hind  coffin  joint 

19,  Front  coffin  bone 

39,  Hind  coffin  bone 

20,  Ulna 

40,  Ribs 

As  the  front  legs  of  a  horse  bear  the  greater  part  of  its  weight, 
they  are  termed  the  weight  carriers.  The  hind  legs  are  termed 
the  propellers  because  they  apply  most  of  the  power.  The 
bones  of  the  front  legs  have  no  bony  connection  with  the  skele- 
ton of  the  body,  but  are  hung  to  it  by  means  of  strong  muscles ; 
for  this  reason  there  is  less  concussion  on  a  horse  when  in  action 
than  if  the  connection  between  the  legs  and  frame  were  solid 
bone.  The  bones  of  the  hind  legs,  by  which  power  is  trans- 
mitted, are  arranged  in  a  series  of  angles  and  the  femurs  are 
connected  to  the  skeleton  by  means  of  strong  ball-and-socket 

243—33 


[t] 


SCORE    CARD    FOR    LIGHT    MARKET    HORSES 


Name  or  number  of  animal  . 

Age 

Blemishes 

Unsoundnesses 

Estimated  market  value . . .  . 


General  Appearance 

Height:  score  according  to  class 

Weight:  score  according  to  class 

Form:  according  to  class,  symmetrical,  smooth,  and  stylish 

Condition:  carrying  a  moderate  amount  of  firm  flesh 

Quality:  bone  clean,  firm,  and  indicating  sufficient  substance;  tendons 

well  defined;  hair  and  skin  fine 

Temperament:  spirited,  yet  docile ; 

Head  and  Neck 

Head:  not  too  large,  features  well  defined  and  regular 

Muzzle:  fine,  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even;  teeth  sound 

Eyes:  large,  full,  bright,  and  clear 

Forehead :  broad  and  full 

Ears:  medium  size,  pointed;  well  carried,  and  not  far  apart 

Neck:  rather  long  and  clean  cut,  well  muscled;  crest  well  developed  and 
nicely  arched;  throat  latch  fine;  windpipe  large;  tapering  from 
shoulder  to  head  and  head  attached  at  proper  angle 

FOREQUARTERS 

Shoulders:  oblique,  long,  smooth,  and  covered  with  muscle  extending 
into  back;  withers  well  finished  at  the  top 

Arms:  short,  well  muscled,  elbows  lying  close  to  the  body 

Fore  legs:  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of 
the  shoulder  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern, 
and  foot;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from  the 
center  of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  knee  and 
pastern  joint  and  back  of  the  hoof 

Forearms:  well  muscled,  medium  length,  wide,  and  tapering  from  the 
elbow  to  the  knee 

Knees:  large,  clean,  wide,  straight,  and  strongly  supported 

Cannons:  medium,  length  wide,  clean;  tendons  large,  set  well  back,  not 
tied  in  below  the  knees 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight,  strong,  free  from  puffiness 

Pasterns:  strong,  of  medium  length;  angle  with  the  ground  45° 

Feet:  straight,  medium  size,  even;  horn  dense;  frog  large,  elastic;  bars 
strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide,  high;  hoof  head  large 

Body 
Chest:  deep,  low;  girth  large;  width  of  Ijreast  in  proportion  to  other  parts 

Ribs:  long,  well  sprung 

Back:  straight,  short,  broad,  well  muscled 

Loins:  wide,  short,  thick,  and  neatly  joined  to  hips 

Under  line:  long;  flank  low 


Perfect  Judge's 
Score       Score 
1  

1  

5  

2  


Hindquarters 

Hips:  smooth,  level,  width  in  proportion  to  other  parts  but  not  prom- 
inent   

Croup:  long,  wide,  muscular 

Tail:  attached  high,  well  carried,  well  haired,  with  straight  and  not  too 
coarse  hair 

Thighs:  long,  muscular,  thick,  and  wide,  well  muscled  over  stifle 

Quarters:  heavily  muscled 

Hind  legs:  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of 
the  buttock  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern, 
and  foot.  From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joint 
should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the 
middle;  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should 
run  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  cannon 

Gaskins,  or  lower  thighs:  wide,  well  muscled 

Hocks:  large,  strong,  clean,  and  well  defined,  free  from  puffiness,  coarse- 
ness, and  curbiness 

Cannons:  short,  broad,  flat  and  clean,  tendons  large  and  set  back,  not 
too  light  below  the  hock 

Fetlocks:  large,  wide,  straight,  strong,  free  from  puffiness 

Pasterns:  strong  and  of  medium  length;  obliquity  not  so  great  as  fore 
pasterns 

Hind  feet:  straight,  medium  size,  even;  smaller  and  not  so  round  as  fore 
feet;  horn  dense;  frog  large,  elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel 
wide,  high 

Action 

Walk:  elastic,  quick,  balanced;  step  long 

Trot:  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high;  should  not  forge,  wing,  or  roll  in 
front,  or  go  wide  or  too  close  behind 


15 


Total 100 


SCORE    CARD    FOR    HEAVY    MARKET    HORSES 

Name  or  number  of  animal 

Age 

Market  class 

Blemishes 

Unsoundnesses 

Estimated  market  value 


General  Appearance 


Height:  score  according  to  class 

Weight:  scoie  according  to  class 

Form:  according  to  class,  broad,  massive,  symmetrical 

Condition:  carrying  a  good  amount  of  firm  flesh _.  .  . 

Quality:  bone  moderately  heavy,  clean,  firm,  and  indicating  sufiBcient 

substance;  tendons  well  defined;  hair  and  skin  fine 4 

Temperament:  quiet,  yet  energetic 3 

Head  and  Neck 

Head:  medium  in  size,  not  coarse 

Muzzle:  fine;  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even;  teeth  sound 

Eyes:  large,  full,  bright,  clear 

Forehead :  broad  and  full 

Ears:  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried,  and  not  far  apart 

Neck:  medium  length,  clean  cut,  well  muscled;  tapering  from  shoulder 
to  head,  and  head  attached  at  proper  angle;  crest  well  developed 
and  nicely  arched;  throat  latch  fine;  windpipe  large 2 

Forequarters 

Shoulders:  oblique,  long,  smooth,  and  covered  with  muscle   extending 

into  back;  withers  well  finished  at  the  top 3 

Arms:  short,  well  muscled,  elbow  lying  close  to  the  body 2 

Fore  legs:  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of 
the  shoulder  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern, 
and  foot;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from  the 
center  of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  knee  and 

pastern  joint  and  back  of  the  hoof 3 

Forearms:  heavily  muscled,  long,  wide,  and  tapering  from  the  elbow  to 

the  knee 2 

Knees:  large,  clean,  wide,  straight,  and  strongly  supported 1 

Cannons:  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  large,  set  well  back,  not  tied  in 

below  the  knees 2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight,  strong,  free  from  puffiness 1 

Pasterns:  strong,  of  medium  length;  angle  with  the  ground  45  degrees.  .  2 

Feet:  straight,  medium  size,  even;  horn  dense;  frog  large,  elastic;  bars 

strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide,  high;  hoof  head  large 5 

Body 

Chest:  deep,  low;  girth  large;  width  of  breast  in  proportion  to  other  parts  3 

Ribs:  long,  well  sprung 3 

Back:  straight,  short,  broad,  well  muscled 3 

Loins:  wide,  short,  thick,  and  neatly  joined  to  hips 2 

Under  line:  long,  flank  low 1 

Hindquarters 
Hips:   smooth,  level;   width  in   proportion   with  other  parts,   but  not 

prominent 2 

Croup:  long,  wide,  muscular,  not  drooping 2 

Tail:  attached  high,  well  carried,  well  haired,  with  straight  and  not  too 

coarse  hair 1 

Thighs:  long,  muscular,  thick,  and  wide;  well  muscled  over  stifle 3 

Quarters:  heavily  muscled,  deep 2 

Hind  legs:  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of 
the  buttock  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern, 
and  foot;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joint 
should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the 
middle;  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 

should  run  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  cannon 4 

Gaskins,  or  lower  thighs:  long,  wide,  well  muscled 1 

Hocks:  large,  strong,  clean,  and  well  defined;  free  from  puffiness,  coarse- 
ness, and  curbiness 4 

Cannons:  medium  length,  broad,  flat,  and  clean;  tendons  large  and  set 

back,  not  too  light  below  the  hock 2 

Fetlocks:  large,  wide,  straight,  strong,  free  from  puffiness 1 

Pasterns:  strong  and  of  medium  length;  obliquity  not  so  great  as  fore 

pasterns 1 

Hind  feet:  straight,  medium  size,  even;  smaller  and  not  so  round  as  fore 
feet;  horn  dense;  frog  large,  elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel 
wide,  high 4 

Action 

Walk:  elastic,  quick,  balanced;  step  long 6 

Trot:  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high;  should  not  wing  or  roll  in  front  or  go 

wide  or  too  close  behind 4 

Total 100 


Perfect  Judge's 

Score  Score 

1  

6  

5  

4  


6  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

joints;  this  also  aids  in  preventing  concussion  and  makes 
locomotion  possible.  When  a  leg  is  extended  there  is  a  straight- 
ening of  the  angles;  and  a  horse  is  able  to  reach  the  ground 
with  its  foot  without  materially  lowering  the  body.  It  can 
be  seen  in  Fig.  1  that  angles  occur  in  the  front  legs  between 
the  scapula  and  the  humerus,  the  himierus  and  radius,  and  the 
cannon  and  the  pastern;  in  the  hind  legs,  between  the  ilium 
and  the  femur,  the  tibia  and  the  cannon,  and  the  cannon  and 
the  pastern. 

The  coupling  of  a  horse  is  commonly  described  as  the  dis- 
tance from  the  last  rib  to  the  ilium,  or  hip  bone,  but  in  reality 
it  is  the  connection  between  the  last  thoracic  vertebra  and 
the  beginning  of  the  sacrum.  An  animal  that  has  an  objec- 
tionably long  coupling  is  too  long  in  the  lumbar  vertebrae. 
The  last  rib,  being  attached  to  the  rear  thoracic  vertebra, 
furnishes  the  best  means  available  for  determining  the  forward 
boundary  of  the  coupling. 

Muscles  consist  of  bundles  of  fibers.  When  the  fibers  are 
long  and  thin  they  are  more  elastic  and  have  greater  possi- 
bility of  contraction  than  when  they  are  short  and  heavy. 
Heavy  muscles  denote  power;  long,  slender  ones  denote  speed. 
Short  muscles  are  usually  found  in  association  with  short 
bones  and  in  regions  where  the  principal  function  is  the  trans- 
mission of  power;  long  muscles  are  usually  associated  with 
long  bones  and  in  regions  where  the  muscles  are  the  source 
of  speed. 

The  nervous  system  varies  greatly  in  different  individuals 
and  is  no  less  important  as  a  point  of  study  in  the  judging  of 
horses  than  the  bones  and  muscles.  Its  function  is  to  control 
all  action,  both  voluntary  and  involuntary.  It  is  through 
nervous  stimulation  that  an  animal  is  able  to  relax,  contract, 
and  control  its  muscles.  Thus,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  degree 
of  stimulation  has  much  to  do  with  the  quickness  and  strength 
with  which  a  horse  may  act. 

3.     Use  of  Score  Cards  in  Judging  of  Horses. — As  an  aid 

to  beginners  in  the  judging  of  horses,  score  cards  are  often 
used.     Such  cards  are  devised  for  the  purpose  of  familiarizing 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  7 

the  novice  with  the  different  parts  of  a  horse  and  their  relative 
importance  as  expressed  numerically.  As  soon  as  the  score 
card  has  been  mastered  it  should  be  laid  aside. 

For  the  present  purpose  it  is  sufficient  to  give  two  forms  of 
score  cards,  namely,  one  for  light  horses  and  one  for  heavy 
horses.  The  term  light  horses  has  reference  to  animals  that 
are  used  for  riding  and  driving  or  other  pleasure  purposes; 
the  term  heavy  horses  refers  to  animals  that  are  used  for 
drawing  heavy  loads,  such  as  in  teaming  and  farm  work.  The 
score  cards  given  here  are  based  on  the  market  requirements 
for  these  two  general  groups,  and  are  similar  to  the  score  cards 
used  at  the  several  agricultural  colleges  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada. 

4.  Market  Requirements  for  Horses. — The  market  value 
of  a  horse  is  rated  largely  according  to  its  soundness,  con- 
formation, quality,  co-ndition,  action,  age,  color,  education  and 
disposition,  and  general  appearance.  There  are  certain  minor 
considerations,  also,  such  as  sex  and  breed,  that  may  affect  the 
value  in  some  cases,  but  such  factors  usually  have  little  weight. 

5.  Soundness  is  the  most  important  consideration  in 
determining  a  horse's  value.  A  horse  with  any  disease  or 
alteration  of  structure  on  account  of  disease  or  accident,  that 
is  enfeebled  or  deranged,  or  that  has  any  vice  that  actually 
interferes  with  its  usefulness  and  reduces  its  capability  for 
work  is  termed  unsound.  Horses  are  frequently  sold  at  public 
auction  as  being  serviceably  sound;  that  is,  they  have  no 
defects  that  make  them  unfit  for  the  service  for  which  they 
are  sold.  They  must  be  good  in  wind  and  eyes  and  must  not 
be  lame  or  sore  in  any  way,  but  may  have  blemishes  of  a 
minor  nature,  such  as  small  splints  or  a  spot  or  streak  in  the 
eye  that  does  not  affect  the  sight.  Blemishes  that  detract 
from  the  appearance  of  an  animal  and  lessen  its  sale  value 
but  that  do  not  interfere  with  its  usefulness  are  not  unsound- 
nesses, although  they  may  be  an  indication  of  unsoundness; 
for  instance,  skin  scars  are  only  blemishes,  but  they  may 
indicate  the  presence  of  spavin,  ringbone,  or  certain  other 
similar  unsoundnesses.     Some  of  the  unsoundnesses  that  dis- 


8  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

qualify  a  horse  for  hard  service  are:  broken  wind,  unsound 
eyes,  ringbones,  side  bones,  large  splints,  buck  knees,  and 
unsound  hocks,  such  as  those  having  curbs,  spavins,  and  large 
thoroughpins.     These  unsoundnesses  will  be  discussed  later. 

6.  The  conformation  of  a  horse  should  indicate  strength 
and  endurance.  Strength  is  denoted  chiefly  by  well-developed 
muscles  and  a  general  symmetry  of  parts.  Endurance  is 
indicated  by  a  deep,  capacious  chest,  good  feet  and  legs, 
a  short,  well-muscled  back,  a  deep  barrel  and  deep  flanks,  and 
a  short  coupling.  The  extent  to  which  muscles  indicate 
strength  is  determined  not  only  by  their  size  but  also  by  their 
quality;  they  should  be  elastic  and  pliable  in  addition  to  being 
well  developed.  Symmetry  of  parts  is  necessary  for  correct 
proportions.  A  deep,  capacious  chest  in  which  there  is  plenty 
of  room  for  the  vital  organs  denotes  health  and  a  strong  con- 
stitution; these  qualities  are  the  most  instrumental  in  insuring 
endurance.  Because  of  the  fact  that  a  large  percentage  of  the 
horses  that  work  on  paved  streets  wear  out  first  in  the  feet, 
the  conformation  and  quality  of  these  parts  are  important 
considerations  in  the  selection  of  horses  for  use  in  the  cities; 
the  feet  of  horses  intended  for  farm  use  do  not  receive  so  much 
consideration  as  those  of  horses  for  city  use,  as  the  feet  of 
farm  horses  rarely  wear  out.  Likewise,  the  legs  of  horses 
intended  for  city  work  are  scrutinized  more  closely  than  those 
of  horses  for  farm  work,  because  the  concussion  in  traveling 
on  pavements  is  much  greater  than  in  traveling  on  soil  and 
consequently  the  wear  is  greater.  A  short,. well-muscled  back, 
a  deep  barrel  and  deep  flanks,  and  a  short  coupling  indicate 
good  feeding  qualities,  which,  in  turn,  denote  endurance. 

Excessive  concussion  usually  produces  soreness  and  disease 
and  therefore  shortens  the  period  of  usefulness  of  an  animal, 
and  in  order  that  there  may  be  the  least  concussion  when  its 
feet  strike  the  ground,  a  horse  should  have  oblique  shoulders, 
rather  short  cannons,  and  moderately  long  pasterns.  The  front 
pasterns  should  set  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  with  the 
ground ;  the  hind  pasterns  should  stand  at  a  slightly  wider  angle 
with  the  ground.    Buyers  discriminate  against  horses  with  long, 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


9 


low  pasterns.  In  Fig.  2  is  illustrated  the  lower  part  of  a 
horse's  leg  with  a  pastern  a  that  illustrates  this  objectionable 
conformation.  A  horse  that  has  pasterns 
of  this  kind  is  said  to  be  coon-footed. 

The  width  of  the  hips  should  be  in  keep- 
ing with  the  other  parts  of  a  horse,  but  the 
hips  should  not  be  prominent.  The  croup 
should  be  long,  well  muscled,  and  not  too 
drooping.  A  drooping  croup,  although  more 
objectionable  in  some  classes  than  in  others, 
is  imsightly  and  detracts  from  the  value  of 
a  horse.  In  Fig.  3  (a)  is  shown  a  drooping 
croup  and  in  (6),  a  croup  of  the  correct 
conformation.  The  tail  should  be  set  high, 
be  well  haired,  and  be  stylishly  carried. 
The  quarters  and  thighs  shotdd  be  heavily 
muscled  and  the  hocks  large,  strong,  and 
clean  cut.  The  head  should  be  of  moderate  size,  the  eyes 
large   and   mild,    and   the    ears    refined,    carried    erect,    and 


Fig.  2 


(a) 


0) 


Fig.  3 


10 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


not  set  too  far  apart.     A  Roman  nose,  a  peculiar  conformation 
of  the  face  that  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  4,  is  not  desirable. 

7.  Quality  in  a  horse  is  of  prime  importance.  As  applied 
to  horses,  it  has  reference  to  the  degree  of  excellence  of  the 
bones,  skin,  hair,  and  muscles.  Its  presence  is  shown  by 
clean-cut  features  of  the  head  and  legs,  clean  bones,  and  well- 
defined  tendons;  a  soft,  glove-like  skin  with  fine,  silky  hair; 
well-defined  muscles,  joints,  and  tendons;  and  an  absence  of 
coarseness.  When  an  animal  of  quality  is  exerted  the  skin 
shows    clearly    an    intricate    network    of    veins.     Coarseness 

throughout,  especially  of 
hair  and  skin,  is  usually 
associated  with  soft,  spongy 
bone,  which  is  subject  to 
disease  under  the  strain  of 
hard  usage  or  neglect.  The 
presence  or  absence  of 
quality  is  a  strong  indica- 
tion of  the  extent  of  a  horse's 
endurance. 


8.  Horses  must  be  in 
good  condition  in  order  to 
bring  good  prices  on  the 
market;  that  is,  they  must  have  enough  flesh  to  round  out 
their  bodies,  and  a  glossy  coat  of  hair  to  give  them  a  sleek 
appearance;  a  good  coat  of  hair  that  fills  the  market  require- 
ments is  often  estimated  to  be  worth  about  $10.  Condition 
is  a  more  important  consideration  in  heavy  horses  than  in 
light  horses.  Careful  estimates  based  on  experiments  have 
been  made  that  give  the  value  per  pound  of  a  sufficient  amount 
of  flesh  to  put  heavy  horses  in  good  market  condition  at  from 
20  to  25  cents.  As  the  cost  of  putting  flesh  on  horses  need  not 
exceed  from  8  to  12  cents  per  pound,  the  producer  can  well 
afford  to  fatten  his  thin  horses  before  selling  them. 

9.     Excellence  of  action  is  more  effective  than  any  other 
one  point  in  bringing  a  high  price  for  a  horse  of  the  carriage, 


Fig.  4 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  11 

road,  or  saddle  classes,  but  it  is  not  so  important  in  the  case 
of  horses  of  other  classes;  however,  the  market  requires  that 
all  horses  have  good  action.  A  horse  should  move  its  legs  and 
feet  in  a  straight  line,  picking  the  front  feet  well  up  and  carry- 
ing them  forwards  without  winging  or  interfering.  By  winging 
is  meant  throwing  the  feet  out  or  in  when  traveling.  Inter- 
fering means  striking  the  fetlock  or  the  cannon  of  one  leg  with 
the  foot  of  the  opposite  leg  as  it  passes ;  interfering  may  be  done 
by  the  hind  legs  as  well  as  the  front.  The  hind  feet  should 
follow  in  the  line  of  the  front  feet  without  interfering,  hitching, 
cross-firing,  or  forging.  By  hitching  is  meant  taking  a  longer 
stride  with  one  hind  leg  than  with  the  other.  By  cross-firing 
is  meant  the  striking  of  a  fore  foot  in  traveling  with  the  hind 
foot  of  the  opposite  side.  Forging  is  striking  a  front  shoe 
with  the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe  on  the  same  side.  The  action 
required  for  the  various  classes  has  already  been  described  in 
a  previous  Section. 

10.  Age  is  of  great  importance  in  determining  the  value 
of  a  horse.  The  market  demand  is  for  horses  that  are  from 
4  to  8  years  old,  the  exact  age  depending  on  the  market  class, 
the  degree  of  maturity,  and  the  soundness  of  each  animal. 
All  horses  sell  best  when  they  are  from  5  to  7  years  old,  but  in 
the  case  of  classes  for  which  there  is  a  strong  demand,  a  well- 
matured  animal,  if  in  good  condition,  will  be  readily  taken 
at  less  than  5  years  of  age.  Heavy  horses  mature  earlier  than 
light  horses  and  less  time  is  required  for  their  education,  con- 
sequently they  are  acceptable  to  the  market  at  a  younger  age, 
and  their  value,  likewise,  begins  to  decrease  sooner  than  that 
of  light  horses. 

11.  Color,  as  a  rule,  is  not  an  important  market  con- 
sideration, and  all  horses  with  solid  colors  except  white  are  in 
good  demand.  A  good  animal  of  any  solid  color  is  rarely 
objected  to  unless  it  is  by  a  purchaser  who  has  a  special  order 
to  fill.  More  discrimination  in  color  is  made  in  the  case  of 
light  horses  than  of  heavy  horses,  for  the  reason  that  the  latter 
are  used  chiefly  for  utility  purposes,  and  the  former  are  used 
principally  for  pleasure  purposes.     Choice  steel-gray,  dapple- 


m 


12  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

gray,  and  strawberry-roan  horses  of  the  draft,  eastern-chunk, 
and  wagon-horse  classes  are  in  strong  demand  by  firms  that 
regard  their  teams  as  an  advertisement  and  want  them  to 
attract  as  much  attention  as  possible.  Bay,  brown,  and 
chestnut  horses  sell  better  in  the  light -horse  classes  than  those 
of  any  other  colors,  although  a  well-matched  pair  of  blacks 
that  are  suitable  for  hearse  purposes  are  usually  in  strong 
demand.  White  horses,  also,  are  sometimes  used  for  hearse 
purposes,  but  the  principal  demand  is  for  black  animals  with 
no  white  markings. 

12.  The  education  and  disposition  of  horses  have  con- 
siderable influence  on  their  market  value.  Horses  of  all  classes 
should  have  kind  dispositions,  be  willing  workers,  and  be  well 
educated  for  their  work.  It  is  readily  apparent,  however, 
that  a  thorough  education  is  much  more  necessary  in  some 
classes  than  in  others.  Horses  that  are  expected  to  show 
fancy  action  or  gaits  must  be  thoroughly  trained  for  their  work ; 
and  all  light  horses  should  be  indifferent  to  sights  and  sounds 
that  commonly  frighten  horses.  Heav}''  horses  should  be 
good  pullers  and  be  free  from  bad  habits  and  vices. 

13.  The  general  appearance  of  a  horse  has  much  to  do  with 
its  market  value.  A  horse  intended  for  market  should  be  well 
groomed  so  that  the  hair  is  close  to  the  body  and  is  sleek  and 
glossy.  The  foretops  and  legs  of  market  horses  should  not  be 
clipped,  because  this  gives  the  impression  that  the  animals 
are  second-hand  or  stale,  that  is,  not  in  their  prime,  and  the 
presence  of  foretop  and  feather  leaves  little  doubt  as  to  the 
animals  being  fresh  from  the  country.  Docking  of  the  tail 
should  not  be  practiced  by  the  producer,  as  that  is  the  business 
of  dealers  who  cater  to  a  certain  class  of  trade. 

14.  The  sex  of  a  horse  has  little  effect,  as  a  rule,  on  its 
market  value,  although  for  city  use,  geldings  sell  better  than 
mares,  and  the  reverse  condition  is  true  for  country  use.  Mares 
are  not  desirable  in  the  city,  because  there  is  a  likelihood  of 
them  being  in  foal,  and  the  exhibition  of  heat  is  objectionable; 
but  for  country  use  mares  are  preferred,  because  in  many  cases 
farmers  buy  horses  with  the  expectation  of  breeding  them. 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  13 

15.  The  breed  to  which  a  horse  belongs  has  little  effect 
on  its  market  value,  provided  the  horse  is  a  good  individual. 
Some  buyers  discriminate  against  the  animals  of  certain  breeds 
on  the  ground  that  they  are  more  subject  to  ills  and  unsound- 
nesses than  those  of  other  breeds.  However,  in  general,  the 
breed  to  which  a  horse  belongs  has  little  influence  in  determin- 
ing its  value. 

PROCEDURE  IN  JUDGING  OF  HORSES 


GENERAL  EXAMINATION 

16.  In  the  judging  of  horses,  it  is  advisable  to  have  a 
definite  system  of  procedure.  The  system  followed  by  most 
judges  is  first  to  make  an  examination  of  an  animal  in  a  general 
way  and  then  to  make  a  thorough  and  detailed  examination 
of  each  part.  In  a  general  examination  of  an  animal  the 
judge  should  study  its  conformation,  quality,  style,  action, 
and  temperament. 

17.  Judging  of  Conformation. — Usually  the  first  point  that 
is  considered  in  a  general  examination  of  a  horse  is  its  confor- 
mation. By  conformation  is  meant  the  form,  structure, 
outline,  or  general  arrangement  of  the  parts.  The  confor- 
mation of  a  horse  can  best  be  studied  from  a  point  several 
paces  away  from  the  animal;  the  judge  should  stand  first  at 
one  side,  then  at  the  front,  then  at  the  other  side,  and  finally 
at  the  rear.  -From  the  side,  the  judge  can  observe  the  top  and 
bottom  lines  and  study  the  general  balance  of  the  horse.  The 
top  line — the  back  from  the  top  of  the  shoulders  to  the  root 
of  the  tail — should  be  relatively  straight  and  short;  the  under 
line — the  line  of  the  body  from  the  fore  legs  to  the  hind  legs — 
should  be  long  with  a  low  flank.  The  judge  can  observe  also 
from  the  side  the  length  and  contour  of  the  neck,  the  carriage 
of  the  head,  the  slope  of  the  shoulders,  the  depth  of  the  body, 
the  filling  in  of  the  fore  flanks,  the  length  of  the  coupHng,  the 
length  and  levelness  of  the  croup,  the  set  of  the  legs,  and 
the  muscular  development  of  the  forearms  and  gaskins.     The 


14 


15 


16  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

requirements  for  these  points  are  given  in  the  score  cards  for 
light  and  heavy  horses  and  are  explained  later. 

18.  In  Fig.  5  (a)  is  shown  a  side  view  of  the  correct  posi- 
tion of  the  fore  legs  of  a  horse  when  it  is  standing.  A  plumb 
line  dropped  from  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint  bisects  the  knee, 
cannon,  and  fetlock,  and  strikes  the  ground  at  the  heel.  In  (6), 
the  foot  extends  too  far  forwards;  this  may  be  a  natural  posi- 
tion or  it  may  be  due  to  soreness  in  the  feet.  Occasionally, 
a  horse  is  found  that  stands  with  the  fore  feet  too  far  back, 
that  is,  just  opposite  of  the  position  shown  in  (6),  The  posi- 
tion shown  in  (c)  is  common  in  horses;  and  an  animal  that  has 
the  legs  in  this  position  is  said  to  be  buck-kneed  or  knee  sprung. 
A  horse  with  the  legs  in  position  shown  in  (d)  is  said  to  be 
calf-kneed. 

19.  In  Fig.  6  (a)  is  shown  a  side  view  of  the  correct  position 
of  the  hind  legs  of  a  horse  when  standing.  It  can  be  seen  that 
the  hind  cannons  are  perpendiciilar,  and  if  a  straightedge  were 
placed  at  the  rear  of  the  cannons,  as  indicated  by  the  line, 
it  would  strike  the  point  of  the  buttocks.  In  (6),  (c),  and  (d) 
are  illustrated  undesirable  conformations  of  the  hind  legs. 
Hocks  such  as  those  shown  in  (6)  are  known  as  sickle  hocks, 
and  are  predisposed  to  curbs.  In  the  position  shown  in  (c) 
the  legs  are  set  back  too  far.  Although  the  position  shown 
in  (d)  fills  the  requirements  of  having  the  cannons  and  the 
point  of  the  buttock  on  a  perpendicular  line,  the  croup  is  too 
short  and  drooping  and  hence  gives  the  legs  a  poor  set;  a 
horse  with  such  a  conformation  would  have  a  very  short  stride. 

20.  A  horse  that  is  correctly  proportioned  should  be  longer 
from  the  rear  of  the  loin  to  the  point  of  the  buttock  than  the 
total  length  of  back  and  loin.  The  hind  flank  should  be  well 
let  down  and  deep;  however,  the  different  classes  vary  some- 
what in  this  respect,  draft  horses  being  relatively  deeper  in 
the  flank  than  light  horses.  The  head  should  be  attached 
to  the  neck  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  a  poise  of  dignity;  the  neck 
should  be  elevated  from  the  shoulders  and  have  a  good  crest 
development,  although  this  varies  in  different  classes. 


18  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

21.  Having  completed  the  inspection  from  the  side,  the 
judge  should  next  step  to  the  front  of  the  animal.  From  this 
view  he  can  scrutinize  the  general  bearing,  the  proportion  of 
parts,  the  straightness  of  the  fore  legs,  the  width  of  the  chest, 
and  the  spring  of  the  ribs. 

From  the  front  the  fore  legs  should  appear  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  7  (a).  The  toes  should  point  straight  forwards,  turning 
neither  in  nor  out,  and  a  plumb  line  dropped  from  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  should  bisect  the  knee,  cannon,  fetlock,  and 
toe.  In  (6),  (c)  (d),  and  (e)  are  shown  conformations  that 
are  frequently  found,  and  all  of  which  are  undesirable.  A 
horse  with  the  fore  legs  in  the  position  shown  in  (6)  is  almost 
certain  to  wing  out,  or  paddle,  when  moving;  one  with  the  fore- 
legs as  shown  in  (c)  will  likely  interfere. 

The  ribs  should  be  long  and  well  sprung,  arching  out  well 
from  the  spinal  column  and  carrying  their  curvature  all  the 
way  down.     If  a  cross-section  were  made  at  the  rear  of  the 


(e) 


withers  the  outline  should  appear  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  (a)  being 
that  of  a  typical  drafter,  (6)  that  of  a  coach  horse,  and  (c)  that 
of  a  road  or  a  saddle  horse. 

22.  Passing  from  the  front  of  the  animal,  the  judge  should 
next  take  his  position  at  the  side  opposite  the  one  from  which 
the  horse  was  first  viewed,  and  make  a  similar  inspection  to  that 
of  the  first  position.  He  should  then  proceed  to  the  rear  of  the 
horse.  From  the  rear  it  is  possible  to  observe  the  spring  of 
the  ribs,  the  width  of  the  barrel,  the  width  and  muscular 


19 


243—34 


r4] 


20  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

development  of  the  croup  and  thighs,  the  levelness  of  the  hips, 
and  the  position  of  the  hind  legs;  by  raising  the  tail  the  judge 
can  observe  the  muscular  development  of  the  quarters  and  the 
nature  of  the  hocks.  The  proper  conformation  of  all  of  these 
parts  is  described  in  the  score  cards  for  light  and  heavy  horses. 

23.  In  Fig.  9  (a)  is  shown  a  rear  view  of  the  correct  position 
of  the  hind  legs  of  a  horse  when  standing.  A  plumb  line 
dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  to  the  ground  bisects 
the  hock,  cannon,  and  foot.  The  positions  shown  in  (b),  (c), 
and  (d)  are  variations  from  the  correct  conformation  and  are 
objectionable.  In  (b),  the  legs  are  set  too  wide  apart;  in  (c), 
they  are  bowed  outwards,  legs  of  this  conformation  being  spoken 
of  as  too  open  at  the  hocks;  in  (d),  the  legs  turn  inwards,  legs 
of  this  conformation  being  said  to  be  cow-hocked. 

24.  Judging  of  Quality. — After  a  judge  has  studied  the 
conformation  of  a  horse  he  should  next  examine  it  for  quality. 
The  degree  of  quality  of  a  horse  may  be  ascertained  by  passing 
the  hand  over  its  body,  particularly  the  legs,  and  noting  the 
fineness  of  hair  and  skin,  the  cleanness  and  firmness  of  bone, 
the  definition  of  the  tendons,  and  the  distinctness  of  the  lines 
showing  the  divisions  of  the  muscles.  Another  index  to  the 
degree  of  quality  is  the  conformation  of  the  joints  of  the  legs; 
in  an  animal  of  quality,  these  should  be  clearly  defined  and  hard 
and  should  not  show  any  fulness. 

25.  Judging  of  Style. — ^An  important  point  to  note  in  a 
general  examination  of  a  horse  is  its  style.  Style  may  be 
defined  as  an  elegance  of  form  and  a  symmetry  and  blending 
of  all  parts,  both  when  an  animal  is  standing  and  when  it  is 
in  action.  All  horses  should  have  style,  as  it  enhances  their 
commercial  value,  but  style  is  not  the  same  in  all  classes  of 
animals.  For  instance,  style  that  is  considered  appropriate 
for  a  typical  roadster  is  wholly  inappropriate  for  a  park  horse. 
Style  is  judged  by  studying  the  animal  at  rest  and  in  action. 
The  judge  should  note  the  manner  in  which  the  head  and  tail 
are  carried  and  the  grace  and  balance  of  the  action. 

26.  Judging  of  Action. — All  horses  should  have  good  action 
with  reference  to  sureness  of  foot,  effectiveness  in  covering 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  21 

distance,  and  lightness;  the  latter  point  is  important,  because 
horses  with  light  action  suffer  less  from  concussion  than  those 
with  heavy  action.  The  walk  should  be  with  a  long,  firm, 
quick  step,  the  horse  flashing  the  soles  of  the  feet  up  to  view, 
and  raising  its  feet  high  enough  to  clear  any  obstacle  over 
which  it  may  be  passing. 

In  judging  of  action,  the  judge  shoiild  observe  a  horse  from 
the  front  as  it  comes  toward  him,  to  note  whether  there  is  any 
winging  in  or  out  of  the  front  feet,  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  knees  are  carried  forwards.  As  the  horse  approaches, 
the  judge  should  step  to  the  side  and  observe  the  length  of  the 
stride,  the  flexion  of  the  knee  and  hock,  and  the  levelness  of 
the  action.  A  horse  is  said  not  to  be  level  in  its  action  when  it 
is  unbalanced,  that  is,  when  it  lifts  the  feet  relatively  higher 
in  front  than  behind,  or  vice  versa,  or  is  uneven  in  its  stride. 
Some  horses  have  difficulty  in  getting  their  front  feet  out  of 
the  way  of  their  hind  ones,  and  others  have  a  short  stride  in 
the  hind  feet.  In  observing  the  levelness  of  action  the  judge 
should  not  stand  too  close  to  the  horse,  as  this  point  can  best 
be  observed  at  some  distance  to  the  side. 

As  the  horse  passes,  the  judge  should  step  behind  it  and 
observe  the  action  from  the  rear.  From  this  position  he  can 
see  the  manner  in  which  the  hind  feet  are  carried.  The  hind 
feet  should  be  carried  forwards  in  line  with  the  front  ones 
and  neither  close  enough  together  to  cause  interfering,  or 
extremely  wide  apart ;  the  hocks  should  be  well  flexed  and  well 
•  directed  without  any  unusual  widening,  and  the  soles  of  the 
feet  made  plainly  visible  at  every  step. 

A  horse  should  strike  the  ground  with  the  heel  slightly 
before  it  does  with  the  toe,  and  there  should  be  no  hesitancy 
in  allowing  the  foot  to  strike  the  ground;  a  hesitancy  in  this 
is  an  indication  of  soreness.  Soreness  of  feet  or  of  shoulders 
results  in  a  shortening  of  the  stride  and  is  usually  more  notice- 
able at  the  trot  than  at  the  walk.  In  walking  rapidly,  a  horse 
should  place  the  hind  feet  in  advance  of  the  tracks  of  the 
front  ones,  although  this  is  not  the  case  at  a  slow  walk.  Horses 
with  pigeon  toes  usually  wing  out;  those  with  a  conformation 
known  as  splay-footed  (toes  turned  out)  usually  wing  in  and 


22  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

frequently  interfere.  There  should  be  no  hitching,  scalping 
(striking  the  hind  pastern  or  shin  against  the  front  toe  as  the 
hind  foot  is  extended),  speedy  cutting  (striking  the  inside  of 
the  hind  cannon  or  pastern  against  the  front  foot  as  the  hind 
foot  is  brought  forward  and  passes  on  the  outside  of  the  front 
one),  or  cross-firing,  which  occurs  only  with  pacers. 

27.  Judging  of  Temperament. — An  important  point  to 
consider  in  the  judging  of  horses  is  temperament.  A  horse 
that  is  otherwise  valuable  may  be  unsafe  and  unreliable  on 
account  of  having  an  undesirable  temperament.  The  most 
distinctive  temperaments  in  horses  are  the  nervous,  the  lym- 
phatic, the  sanguine,  the  bilious,  and  the  erratic;  these,  with 
modifications  and  combinations,  make  a  great  variety.  Some- 
times it  is  difficult  to  judge  of  a  horse's  temperament  in  a 
general  examination,  but,  as  a  rule,  if  the  horse  is  thoroughly 
exercised  to  show  its  action  a  good  idea  may  be  had  of  its 
temperament. 

The  term  nervous  temperament  is  applied  to  a  temperament 
in  which  the  nervous  system  is  developed  in  proportion  to  the 
muscular  system  and  hence  able  to  stimulate  the  latter  to  the 
performance  of  work.  A  horse  of  nervous  temperament 
exhibits  the  fact  by  being  a  willing  worker  and  is  not  lacking 
in  nervous  control.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  term  nervous 
temperament  does  not  apply  to  temperaments  that  are  excitable 
or  lacking  in  nervous  control  although  it  is  sometimes  mis- 
applied in  this  sense.  In  contrast  to  the  nervous  temperament 
is  the  lymphatic  temperament,  a  condition  in  which  the  nervous 
system  is  not  developed  in  proportion  to  the  muscular  system. 
A  horse  of  this  temperament  usually  lacks  zest  and  spirit  in 
its  work,  a  condition  that  is  probably  due  to  insufficient  nervous 
stimulation;  a  horse  of  lymphatic  temperament  is  said  to  be 
lazy.  A  sanguine  temperament  is  one  resulting  from  appar- 
ently perfect  health,  and  finds  expression  in  kindness  of  dis- 
position and  a  willingness  to  work.  A  horse  with  a  sanguine 
temperament  has  marked  vitality  and  energy,  and  shows  no 
irritability  or  lack  of  nervous  control.  In  contrast  to  the 
sanguine    temperament    is    the    bilious    temperament,    which 


§  37  HORvSE  JUDGING  23 

reflects  itself  in  an  ill  temper,  largely  due  to  a  poor  nutritive 
condition  of  the  body,  often  caused  by  indigestion.  An  erratic 
temperament  results  from  irritating  a  nervous  temperament  or 
never  teaching  the  animal  to  control  it.  Erratic  temperament 
often  exhibits  itself  in  some  form  of  vice  or  in  uncontrollable 
temper. 

DETAILED  EXAMINATION 

28.  A  judge  usually  has  two  objects  in  view  in  making  a 
detailed  examination  of  a  horse.  He  is  desirous,  first,  of  ascer- 
taining the  merits  of  the  different  parts  as  to  conformation  and 
quality,  and,  second,  of  determining  whether  any  unsoundness 
exists.  Although  one  detailed  examination  is  usually  sufficient 
to  cover  both  points,  it  is  desirable,  for  the  sake  of  clearness, 
to  discuss  the  subject  as  if  two  examinations  were  made,  that 
is,  as  if  conformation  and  quality  of  the  parts  were  judged 
at  one  examination  and  the  soundness  at  another.  The 
examination  for  unsoundness  will  be  discussed  last. 

In  beginning  a  detailed  study  of  a  horse  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
adopt  a  regular  system  of  examination,  in  order  that  no  points 
may  be  overlooked.  Most  judges  start  at  the  head  and  neck 
and  pass,  in  turn,  to  the  forequarters,  the  body,  and  the  hind- 
quarters. The  various  parts  of  these  regions  are  examined 
in  detail,  and  then  the  regions  as  a  whole  are  studied. 

29.  Examination  of  the  Head  and  Neck. — The  head  is  an 
important  point  of  study  in  judging  a  horse,  because  its  shape 
gives  expression  to  the  countenance,  which  is  usually  indicative 
of  the  degree  of  intelligence  and  the  nature  of  the  disposition. 
The  head  should  be  of  moderate  size,  with  clean-cut  features, 
and  be  in  proper  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body.  A  profile 
view  should  show  a  comparatively  heavy  jaw  that  tapers  to  a 
refined  but  not  delicate  muzzle.  The  forehead  should  be  broad 
and  high,  indicating  intelligence,  and  should  not  recline  or 
protrude;  a  reclining  forehead  indicates  timidity  and  one  that 
protrudes  indicates  a  headstrong  and  stubborn  disposition. 
The  face  line  from  the  poll  to  the  end  of  the  nose  should  be 
comparatively   straight   as   viewed   from   the   side;   however, 


24 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


horses  of  different  breeds  and  different  sexes  vary  somewhat 
in  this  respect.  As  a  rule,  stallions  more  often  have  Roman 
noses  and  mares  are  incHned  to  have  dished  faces.  The  face 
line  should  incline  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees. 

The  eyes  shotdd  be  large  and  set  so  that  they  are  neither 
sunken  nor  protuding,  correctly  proportioned  between  the  poll 
and  the  end  of  the  muzzle;  and  placid  in  expression,  which  is 
indicative  of  a  sanguine  temperament.     When  the  eyes  are 


Fig.  10 

properly  placed,  a  horse  is  able  to  see  to  the  front  and  to  the 
side  without  turning  its  head.  The  face  shoiild  be  clean  cut 
and  free  of  all  meatiness,  this  condition  indicating  quality; 
the  nostrils  shoidd  be  large,  which  is  indicative  of  good  wind, 
and  when  they  are  distended  they  should  be  nearly  circular 
in  form;  the  lips  should  be  broad,  which  indicates  good  feeding 
qualities.  The  head  should  be  wide  between  the  angle  of  the 
jaw  bones;  this  helps  to  give  shape  and  finish,  and  allows 
plenty  of  room  for  the  windpipe,  throat,  and  larynx.     The  ears 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  25 

should  be  active,  refined,  pointed,  carried  erect,  and  not  set 
too  far  apart.  The  ears  are  expressive  of  many  qualities  about 
the  horse.  Lop  ears  indicate  laziness  or  lassitude,  and  ears 
that  are  carried  erect  but  motionless  are  indicative  of  defective 
hearing  or  total  deafness.  If  one  ear  is  carried  forwards  and 
the  other  one  back,  with  an  occasional  shifting  of  these  positions, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  inspect  the  eyes ;  these  are  likely  to  be  found 
defective.  Extreme  soreness  of  one  or  both  front  feet  is  usually 
shown  by  an  abnormal  carriage  of  the  ears. 

The  neck  should  be  of  good  length  and  in  proportion  to  the 
body;  it  should  be  deep  where  it  joins  the  shoulders,  gradually 
tapering  toward  the  head,  which  should  be  neatly  attached. 
The  throat  latch  should  be  neatly  turned  and  free  from  coarse- 
ness. The  crest  should  be  well  developed,  with  a  gradual 
swell  from  the  withers  to  the  poll  and  no  tendency  toward  a 
depression  in  front  of  the  withers,  a  conformation  known  as 
ewe  neck.     A  neck  of  this  conformation  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  10. 

30.  Examination  of  the  Forequarters. — Passing  from  the 
head  and  neck,  the  judge  should  next  study  the  forequarters. 
The  shoulders  should  be  long,  obliquely  set,  and  neatly  finished 
at  the  withers.  Oblique  shoulders  usually  accompany  a  short 
back.  The  shoulders  should  be  more  obliquely  set  in  light 
horses  than  in  draft  horses,  as  obliquity  of  the  shoulders  gives 
freedom  of  movement.  The  arms  should  be  heavily  muscled 
and  in  draft  horses  should  lie  somewhat  more  horizontal  than 
in  light  horses.  The  elbows  should  lie  near  the  body,  but  not 
so  close  as  to  interfere  with  free,  easy  movement;  ordinarily, 
there  shoiild  be  about  room  enough  to  insert  the  -hand.  The 
forearms  should  be  heavily  muscled  near  the  body,  and  the 
length  should  be  equal  to  that  from  the  knee  to  the  ground; 
the  knee  should  be  large,  well  defined,  and  indicative  of  strength ; 
and  the  tendons  should  stand  back  well  from  the  bone  and  not 
be  tied  in  below  the  knee,  which  is  indicative  of  weakness. 
The  cannons  should  be  wide  and  rather  fiat  as  viewed  from  the 
side,  the  width  being  attained  by  the  distance  the  tendons 
stand  back  from  the  bones.  Horses  of  different  breeds  vary 
greatly  in  this  respect,  the  cannons  of  some  being  nearly  round 


26  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

and  those  of  others  somewhat  flat.     The  cannons  should  be 
clean,  smooth,  and  free  from  splints  and  other  blemishes. 

The  fetlocks  should  be  broad,  as  viewed  from  the  side,  and 
free  from  pufflness.  The  pasterns  should  be  moderately  long 
and  obliquely  set,  about  45  degrees  being  considered  best.  The 
feet  should  be  large,  with  dense,  waxy  horn,  indicating  strength, 
and  there  should  be  no  cracks  or  evidence  of  weakness  or 
brittleness;  the  heels  should  be  wide  and  in  height  about 
one-half  the  length  of  the  toe;  the  frogs  should  be  large  and 
elastic.  Dark-colored  horn  is  preferred  to  light  because  it  is 
usually  tougher.  The  pasterns  and  feet  should  be  neatly 
joined,  blending  into  each  other  without  any  undue  prominence 
at  the  hoof  head  or  coronet,  which  should  be  large.  The  line 
of  the  toe  should  carry  out  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the 
pastern  when  properly  set.  The  feet  should  gradually  spread 
from  the  coronet,  increasing  in  size  toward  the  bottom.  The 
front  feet  are  larger  and  more  circular  in  shape  than  the  hind 
ones,  which  are  longer  and  not  so  broad.  The  soles  should 
be  convex  and  the  heels  high  and  wide,  to  give  ample  room  for 
large  frogs.  The  walls  should  be  heavy  and  the  bars  strong; 
these  should  not  be  pared  out  at  the  time  of  shoeing. 

31.  Examination  of  the  Body. — After  judging  the  fore- 
quarters  the  judge  should  proceed  to  the  body.  The  withers 
should  be  well  muscled  and  well  finished  at  the  top.  The  chest 
should  be  deep  and  capacious,  indicating  well-developed  vital 
organs,  and  should  have  good  length  and  width — broad  from 
elbow  to  elbow.  The  floor  of  the  chest  should  be  well  let  down 
between  the  front  legs  and  extend  forwards,  thus  giving  a  prom- 
inent breast.  The  ribs  should  be  long,  well  sprung,  and  close 
together.  The  back  should  be  straight,  short,  broad,  and 
heavily  muscled,  and  the  loins  wide,  short,  and  thick.  The 
bottom  line  should  be  long,  with  a  flank  that  is  full  and  well  let 
down  but  of  slightly  less  depth  than  the  rest  of  the  body. 

32.  Examination  of  the  Hindquarters. — The  last  region  to 
be  considered  in  a  detailed  examination  of  a  horse  is  the  hind- 
quarters. The  hindquarters  include  the  hips,  croup,-  tail, 
thighs,  quarters,  gaskins,  hocks,  hind  cannons,  hind  fetlocks, 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  27 

hind  pasterns,  and  hind  feet.  The  croup  should  be  long,  wide, 
and  muscular  and  carry  its  width  out  well  to  the  point  of  the 
buttocks;  it  should  not  be  too  drooping,  as  a  drooping  croup 
is  unsightly  and  not  conducive  to  good  action.  The  hips, 
which  are  prominences  of  the  pelvis  for  the  attachment  of 
muscles,  should  be  broad  but  not  prominent  and  in  proportion 
to  the  rest  of  the  body;  broad,  high  hips  give  a  ragged  and 
unkempt  appearance  to  a  horse.  The  thighs  and  quarters 
should  be  deep,  well  developed,  and  heavily  muscled;  the 
quarters  should  not  be  split  too  high.  The  gaskins  should  be 
short  in  draft  horses  but  a  little  longer  in  light  horses;  they 
should  taper  in  width  from  above  to  the  hocks.  The  hocks 
should  be  sound,  free  from  pufhness,  and  long,  with  more 
width  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  as  viewed  from  the  side. 
The  hind  cannons  should  be  comparatively  short,  broad,  and 
smooth,  and  when  viewed  from  the  side  should  have  as  much 
width  just  beneath  the  hock  as  near  the  fetlock.  The  fetlock 
should  be  wide,  straight,  and  strong.  The  hind  pasterns 
should  be  strong  and  sloping;  it  is  not  necessary  that  they  be 
as  sloping  as  the  front  pasterns,  but  they  should  have  no 
tendency  toward  straightness.  The  hind  feet  should  be  as 
described  for  the  front  feet. 


EXAMINATION  FOR  UNSOUNDNESS 

33.  In  making  an  examination  for  unsoundness  it  should 
be  the  purpose  of  a  judge  merely  to  ascertain  whether  an 
unsoundness  exists;  if  any  unsoundness  is  found  it  is  not 
necessary  for  the  judge  to  determine  its  cause.  As  a  rule, 
the  common  unsoundness  can  be  readily  detected  after  a  little 
practice,  although,  in  some  cases,  the  skill  of  a  competent  vet- 
erinarian is  taxed  in  determining  whether  or  not  a  particular 
condition  is  an  unsoundness  or  likely  to  resiolt  in  an  unsound- 
ness. In  order  for  a  person  to  become  accurate  in  detecting 
unsoundness,  however,  it  is  necessary  that  he  have  a  knowledge 
of  the  normal  condition  of  the  parts  likely  to  be  affected.  This 
knowledge  can  best  be  secured  by  observing  the  conformation 
and  performance  of  different  animals. 


28  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

34.  Preliminary  Examination  in  the  Barn. — Some  horse 
dealers  practice  trickery  and  deception  to  mislead  a  prospec- 
tive customer,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  a  good  plan  to  see  a 
horse  in  its  stall,  if  possible,  when  the  owner  is  not  present. 
Unless  the  horse  can  be  seen  unmolested  in  the  stall,  some 
conditions  may  exist  that  may  never  be  discovered  until  too 
late  for  the  knowledge  to  be  of  any  value.  All  appliances  and 
devices  used  for  correcting  vices  and  bad  habits,  the  position 
of  the  horse's  legs,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  stands  in  the 
stall  should  be  observed.  If  most  of  the  weight  in  front  is 
always  borne  on  one  foot  and  the  other  foot  is  extended  for- 
wards, it  suggests  soreness  or  lameness  in  the  extended  foot 
or  leg;  if  the  position  of  the  legs  is  changed,  first  one  being 
forwards  and  then  the  other,  there  may  be  soreness  in  both. 
The  position  of  the  hind  legs  is  not  so  indicative  of  an  affection, 
as  it  is  natural  for  a  horse  to  rest  one  of  the  hind  legs  by  flexing 
it  and  bearing  the  weight  on  the  toe.  If  it  is  observed  that 
a  horse  rests  only  one  of  the  hind  legs  and  not  the  other,  the 
indications  are  that  something  may  be  wrong  with  the  hock 
of  the  leg  that  is  rested — likely  it  may  have  a  spavin. 

Weaving,  that  is,  continually  swaying  back  and  forth  in 
the  stall,  is  a  vice  and  also  an  unsoundness.  The  continual 
exertion  fatigues  a  horse  and  renders  it  unfit  for  hard  service. 
If  weaving  is  not  detected  in  the  stall,  the  chances  are  against 
its  being  discovered  in  time  to  protect  the  purchaser. 

The  condition  of  the  manger  and  wall  in  front  of  a  horse 
should  be  noted  for  signs  of  cribbing.  A  horse  that  cribs 
usually  takes  hold  of  some  object  with  its  teeth,  such  as  the 
edge  of  the  manger,  and  draws  in  wind;  it  may  crib  by  simply 
placing  the  muzzle  against  the  wall  or  by  taking  hold  of  the 
halter  strap,  or  even  without  holding  or  touching  anything. 
Cribbing  may  be  detected  also  by  the  condition  of  the  teeth, 
particularly  the  way  in  which  they  have  been  worn;  the  teeth 
can  be  examined  after  the  horse  is  taken  from  the  stall.  To 
prevent  cribbing,  a  strap  is  sometimes  buckled  rather  tightly 
around  the  horse's  neck  near  the  head.  The  presence  of  such 
a  strap  or  its  marks  on  the  hair  where  it  has  been  worn  should 
be  readily  interpreted  as  indicating  that  the  horse  is  a  cribber. 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  29 

The  way  in  which  the  horse  lifts  its  hind  feet  as  it  is  made 
to  stand  from  one  side  of  the  stall  to  the  other  should  be 
observed,  the  judge  noting  evidence  of  string  halt,  a  con- 
vulsive flexing  of  the  hock.  When  the  horse  is  backed  out  of 
the  stall  it  should  be  noted  whether  or  not  the  hind  feet  are 
picked  up  or  dragged,  and  the  manner  of  handling  the  front 
feet.  A  horse  that  is  subject  to  cramps  drags  the  hind  feet 
or  may  bring  one  foot  up  with  a  jerk;  if  the  horse  is  sore  or 
lame  in  the  shoulders,  the  front  feet  will  be  dragged  instead 
of  being  flexed. 

The  eyes  should  be  examined  as  the  horse  is  taken  from  the 
stall;  the  best  place  for  doing  this  is  in  a  doorway  facing  an 
open  space,  but  not  in  direct  sunlight.  The  eyes  should  be 
bright  and  clear,  and  free  from  a  bluish  or  milky  color,  which 
is  indicative  of  disease.  If  the  vision  is  tested  by  moving 
something  back  and  forth  in  front  of  the  eyes,  an  object  should 
be  used  that  will  not  create  a  perceptible  air  current,  which 
would  cause  blinking.  In  applying  such  a  test  the  judge 
should  stand  at  the  horse's  shoulder  so  that  no  movement 
save  that  of  the  object  may  be  seen  by  the  animal. 

The  teeth  should  also  be  examined  at  this  time,  the  judge 
noting  the  manner  in  which  they  are  worn  and  the  age  of  the 
horse;  the  estimation  of  age  is  explained  later.  If  the  outside 
edges  of  the  incisors  are  worn  round  or  broken  off,  it  is  a  good 
indication  that  the  horse  is  a  cribber.  A  parrot  mouth — one 
in  which  the  upper  jaw  is  longer  than  the  lower — or  an  under- 
shot mouth-^one  in  which  the  lower  jaw  is  longer  than  the 
upper — is  a  malformation  and  may  or  may  not  constitute  an 
unsoundness,  depending  on  the  degree  of  the  malformation. 
If  the  upper  and  lower  teeth  come  together  close  enough  that 
the  horse  can  bite  grass  and  shell  corn,  he  is  practically  as 
good  for  service  as  if  he  did  not  have  the  malformation,  and 
therefore  would  be  considered  sound.  The  bars  of  the  jaw — 
the  region  where  the  bridle  bit  rests — and  the  tongue  should 
also  be  noted  to  see  whether  they  are  smooth  and  in  perfect 
condition.  If  the  bars  or  the  tongue  are  lacerated  or  the 
comers  of  the  mouth  are  worn  and  calloused,  it  may  indicate 
that  the  horse  is  a  hard  mouthed  or  foolish  animal,  that  it  is 


30  HORSE  JUDGING  §  3? 

of  erratic  temperament,  that  it  is  a  chronic  lugger  at  the  bit, 
or  that  the  bit  is  too  severe.  The  Hning  of  the  nostrils  should 
be  noted;  if  the  horse  is  in  health  this  will  be  of  a  pale  pink 
color.  Any  variation  from  this  condition  such  as  a  mottled, 
pale,  or  congested  lining  or  an  unusual  discharge  should  be 
considered  with  suspicion. 

35.  General  Examination  Outside  the  Bam. — After  a  pre- 
liminary examination  of  a  horse  has  been  made  in  the  barn, 
the  animal  should  be  examined  thoroughly  outdoors  in  a  good 
light,  the  horse  being  stood  on  level  ground  in  a  normal  posi- 
tion. At  first  the  judge  should  stand  a  few  steps  away  and 
take  a  general  survey  of  the  animal  from  a  number  of  different 
angles.  In  this  general  survey  the  unsoundness  that  can 
usually  be  easily  seen,  such  as  fistulous  withers,  sweeny,  shoe 
boils,  large  splints,  side  bones,  curbs,  spavins,  buck  knees,  etc., 
should  be  noted  if  present;  these  are  explained  later.  If  the 
general  examination  is  carefully  made  the  judge  should  have  a 
good  idea  of  the  soundness  of  the  animal  before  proceeding 
with  the  detailed  examination. 

36.  Examination  of  the  Head  and  Neck. — In  making  a 
detailed  examination  for  unsoundness,  a  judge  should  follow 
some  definite  system.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  begin  at  the  head 
and  neck  and  examine,  in  turn,  the  forequarters,  the  body, 
and  the  hindquarters.  Starting  with  the  head,  the  judge 
should  note  both  sides  of  the  face  for  scars  of  trephining  for 
the  removal  of  molar  teeth.  Although  these  scars  do  not 
necessarily  indicate  an  unsoundness,  they  do  indicate  that 
the  teeth  have  been  in  bad  condition,  probably  through  decay. 
The  breath  of  the  horse  should  be  noted  to  ascertain  whether 
it  has  a  bad  odor,  which  is  often  indicative  of  decaying  teeth. 
The  hand  should  be  carefully  passed  over  the  poll  from  behind 
the  ears  to  ascertain  whether  there  is  any  enlargement,  scars, 
tenderness,  or  a  fistulous  condition  called  poll  evil.  Poll  evil 
is  evidenced  by  running  sores,  and  always  constitutes  an 
unsoundness. 

37.  Examination  of  the  Forequarters.— In  an  examination 
of  the  forequarters  the  judge  should  look  for  fistula  at  the 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  31 

withers,  sweeny  of  the  shoulder  muscles,  shoe  boils  on  the  points 
of  the  elbows,  faulty  conformation  of  the  knees,  splints  on  the 
cannon  bones,  bowed  tendons  back  of  the  cannon  bones,  wind 
galls  at  the  fetlocks,  ringbones  on  the  pastern  bones,  side  bones 
at  the  sides  of  the  coffin  bones,  and  laminitis  or  founder,  thrush, 
contracted  heels,  and  quarter  cracks  and  sand  cracks  in  the  feet. 

Fistula  is  manifested  by  a  running  sore  in  the  region  of  the 
withers;  it  may  be  caused  by  a  badly  fitting  collar,  a  bruise, 
a  faulty  conformation  of  the  withers,  or  various  other  causes. 
Fistula,  like  poll  evil,  always  constitutes  an  unsoundness. 
If  fistula  has  entirely  healed  and  the  muscles  have  assumed 
their  normal  size  and  shape,  it  is  only  a  blemish;  however, 
because  of  the  tenderness  of  the  parts,  the  animal  is  susceptible 
for  a  time  to  a  return  of  the  trouble  and  may  again  become 
unsound. 

A  shoulder  sweeny  is  a  depression  over  the  shoulder  blade 
due  to  a  wasting  away,  or  atrophy,  of  the  muscles.  It  usually 
causes  more  or  less  lameness  and  constitutes  an  unsoundness. 
Some  horses  have  heavier  muscles  over  the  spine  of  the  shoulder 
blade  than  others,  consequently  it  may  be  necessary  to  com- 
pare the  right  shoulder  with  the  left  in  order  to  determine 
whether  there  has  been  a  slight  atrophy. 

A  shoe  boil  is  a  bruise  at  the  point  of  the  elbow  that  results 
in  an  abscess;  it  is  caused  by  an  animal  lying  on  one  of  its  fore 
feet  in  such  a  way  that  the  heel  of  the  shoe  strikes  the  elbow. 

Faulty  conformation  of  the  knees  may  or  may  not  be  an 
unsoundness,  and  it  is  necessary  to  use  discretion  in  deciding 
this  point.  Buck  knees,  which  are  knees  that  are  bent  for- 
wards when  the  animal  is  standing,  are  congenital  and  should 
not  be  confused  with  sprung  knees,  which  are  knees  that  are 
bent  forwards  also  but  which  are  acquired  after  birth,  due  to  a 
relaxation  of  the  extensor  muscles.  Sprung  knees  are  much 
more  serious  than  buck  knees  and  are  always  an  unsoundness. 

Splints  are  tumorous  bony  growths  on  the  cannon  bone, 
occurring  most  often  on  the  front  legs  and  usually  on  the 
inside  of  the  legs,  although  they  may  occur  on  the  outside  as 
well.  Fig.  11  shows  splints  a  and  b  on  the  fore  legs.  Whether 
or  not  a  splint  is  an  unsoundness  depends  on  its  location  and 


32 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


size.  If  it  causes  lameness  it  is  clearly  an  unsoundness,  but 
if  not  it  is  usually  considered  as  a  blemish.  A  high  splint, 
such  as  that  shown  at  b,  is  usually  more  serious  than  a  low 
splint,  and  a  large  splint  is  more  serious  than  a  small  one. 

A  bowed  tendon  is  an  enlarged  tendon  at  the  back  of  a 
cannon  bone,  due  to  an  injury  or  sprain,  and  is  an  unsound- 
ness. It  may  occur  on  either  the  front  or  the  hind  legs.  In 
Fig.  12  is  illustrated  wind  galls  a,  and  a  bowed  tendon  b  on 
the  front  legs. 


Fig.  11 


Fig.  12 


A  wind  gall  is  a  puffiness  about  the  fetlock  joints  on  either 
the  front  or  the  hind  legs.  It  is  considered  only  a  blemish 
when  the  enlargement  is  slight,  but  when  it  is  large  so  that  it 
interferes  with  the  usefulness  of  the  animal  it  is  considered 
an  unsoundness. 

A  ringbone  is  a  tumorous  bony  growth  that  causes  an 
enlargement  on  either  the  upper  or  the  lower  pastern  bone 
and  is  always  considered  an  unsoundness. 

Side  bones  are  ossified  lateral  cartilages  that  attach  them- 
selves to  the  wings  of  the  coffin  bone;  they  always  constitute  an 
unsoundness.  They  most  often  occur  on  the  front  feet,  and 
more  often  on  heavy  horses  than  on  light  ones.     When  the 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


33 


Fig.  13 


lateral  cartilage  ossifies  it  usually  becomes  enlarged  and  if  the 
coronet  is  free  from  long  hair  the  outline  of  the  cartilage  can 
usually  be  seen,  although  a  manipula- 
tion of  the  hand  is  required  to  determine 
the  state  of  its  development.  Unless  it 
is  hard  and  perfectly  rigid  so  that  it 
cannot  be  moved  laterally,  indicating 
that  it  is  firmly  joined  to  the  coffin 
bone,  it  has  not  reached  the  state  of  a 
side  bone,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  if  it 
has  become  enlarged  the  market  usually 
considers  it  an  unsoundness.  In 
Fig.  13  is  illustrated  a  ringbone  a  and 
a  side  bone  b  on  the  fore  legs. 

Laminitis,  commonly  called  founder,  is  an  inflammation  of 
the  sensitive  laminae  of  the  feet  that  causes  lameness,  and 
always  constitutes  an  tmsoundness.  It  may  be  due  to  over- 
feeding on  grain,  to  giving  too  much  water  when  the  horse  is 
hot,  to  hard  driving,  or  to  paring  the  sole  of  the  foot  too  thin 
and  allowing  the  sole  to  drop.  Opinions  may  differ  as  to 
whether  or  not  slight  inflammation  and  tenderness  exists. 
Founder  in  an  advanced  stage  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  14 
(a)  and  (b). 

Thrush  is  a  diseased  condition  of  the  sole  of  the  foot,  occur- 
ring either  around  the  margin  of  the  frog  or  in  the  cleft,  and 
invariably  makes  its  presence  known  by  a  disagreeable  odor. 
It  is  not  usually  considered  an  unsoundness  unless  it  has 
reached  such  a  state  as  to  cause  lameness. 


Fig.  14 


Contracted  heels  are  not  necessarily  an  unsoundness,  although 
their  presence  may  indicate  that  unsoundnes?  is  likely  to  occur. 


34 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


Fig.  15  (a)  shows  contracted  heels;  (b)  shows  heels  that  are 

desirable. 

Quarter  cracks  and  sand  cracks,  which  are  spHts  in  the 

hoof,  are  unsoundnesses 
when  they  cause  lameness. 
A  quarter  crack  is  one  that 
begins  at  the  coronet  in  the 
quarter  of  the  hoof  and 
extends  downwards.  A 
sand  crack  is  one  that 
begins  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hoof,  usually  in  the  middle. 
Fig.  16  (a)  shows  a  quarter  crack  and 


Fig.  lo 


and  extends  upwards. 
(b)  a  sand  crack. 

38.  Examination  of  the  Body. — The  examination  of  the 
body  can  be  briefly  made,  as  there  are  but  few  unsoundnesses 
that  manifest  themselves  in  this  region.  The  loins  should  be 
examined  for  soreness  or  weakness.  If  no  soreness  or  weak- 
ness is  present  the  animal  will  respond  to  the  touch,  but  if 
either  of  these  troubles  exist  the  muscles  will  be  held  rigid 
when  they  are  pinched.  A  weak  loin  may  be  detected  also 
by  raising  the  horse's  tail;  if  the  loin  is  weak,  little  resistance 
will  be  encountered.  The  movement  of  the  flanks  as  the 
horse  exhales  should  be  observed  for  signs  of  heaves.  If  the 
horse  has  heaves  there  will  be  a  sort  of  double  action.  Heaves 
always  constitutes  an  unsoundness. 

39.  Examination  of  the  Hindquarters. — The  unsound- 
nesses that  pertain  to  the  hindquarters  are:  hipped  condition, 


(a)  Fig.  16  (b) 

hip  sweeny,  dislocated  patella,  bone  spavin,  bog  spavin,  thorottgli- 
pin,  curb,  capped  hock,  salanders,  Michigan  pad,  and  grease. 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


35 


By  a  hipped  condition  is  meant  that  the  point  of  the  ilium 
has  been  broken  off  or  injured  in  such  a  way  that  one  hip 
appears  lower  than  the  other.  Commercially,  it  is  considered 
an  imsoundness;  however,  if  lameness  is  not  present  it  may 
not  interfere  with  a  horse's  service. 

Hip  sweeny  is  an  atrophy  of  the  hip  muscles  that  causes  a 
depression  on  one  side  of  the  rump. 

A  dislocation  of  the  patella  is  manifested,  of  course,  in 
the  region  of  the  stifle.'  As  long  as  the  patella  is  dislocated 
the  horse  is  iinable  to  carry  the  leg  forwards  and  when  moved 
will  likely  go  on  three  legs,  dragging  the  affected  leg  on  the 
toe;  or  there  may  be  a  dislocation  and  return  of  the  patella 
at  almost  every  step.  Such  a  condition  is  more  frequent  in 
young  horses  than  in  old  ones,  and  sometimes  is  brought  on  by 
weakness  following  debilitating  ailments. 

Bone  spavin,  bog  spavin,  thoroughpin,  curb,  and  capped 
hock  are  unsoundness  that  may  be  found  in  the  hocks.  A 
bone  spavin  is  a  tumorous,  bony  growth  that  usually  occurs 
on  the  front  and  angle  of  the  hock  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
cannon  bone,  although  it  may  occur  on  the  outside  as  well. 
It  usually  involves  the  small  bones  forming  the  hock  joint  as 
well  as  the  cannon  bone  and  causes 
an  enlargement  that  is  readily 
detected;  however,  cases  occur  of 
occult,  or  blind  spavin,  that  is,  spavin 
that  is  not  visible  and  only  the 
•  symptoms  of  spavin  are  present. 
The  natural  conformation  of  some 
hocks  is  coarse,  and  in  this  case  it 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  detennine, 
if  there  is  no  lameness,  whether  a 
slight  enlargement  is  natural  or  is 
abnormal  on  account  of  a  diseased 
condition.  Bone  spavin  always 
causes  more  or  less  lameness  during 
its  development,  due  to  the  articular 
surfaces  becoming  disorganized.  It  impedes  the  flexing  of  the 
hock,  and  the  step  is  usually  shortened  and  the  weight  of  the 

243—35 


Fig.  17 


36 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


body  is   quickly  displaced  from  the  affected  limb.     A  bone 
spavin  a  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  17. 

A  bog  spavin  occurs  on  the  front  inner  side  of  the  hock  and 
is  a  similar  condition  to  a  thoroughpin,  the  only  difference 
being  in  the  location,  A  thoroughpin  is  a  soft  enlargement 
that  occurs  in  the  web  of  the  hock  between  the  point  of  the 
hock  and  the  main  leg  bone.  It  is  an  enlarged  or  distended 
bursa  filled  with  synovia,  or  joint  fluid,  and  may  be  apparent 
on  either  the  inside  or  the  outside  of  the  hock  or  extend  through 
the  web  from  the  outside  to  the  inside.     When  pressed  on 


Fig.  18 


from  either  inside  or  outside  it  will  show  on  the  opposite  side. 
Large  thoroughpins  and  bog  spavins  constitute  unsoundnesses. 
Heavy  horses  are  more  subject  to  these  disorders  than  are  light 
ones,  although  the  condition  is  as  serious  for  one  as  it  is  for  the 
other.  Fig.  18  (a)  shows  a  bog  spavin  a;  (b)  shows  a  thorough- 
pin a  as  seen  from  the  outside  of  the  leg,  and  a  thoroughpin  b 
as  seen  from  the  inside. 

A  curb  is  a  hard  swelling  or  bulging  at  the  back  side  of  the 
hock  joint,  due  to  an  injury  or  sprain  of  a  ligament.  Legally 
it  always  constitutes  an  unsoundness,  though  where  it  is  small 
and  on  a  well-formed  hock  it  may  or  may  not  interfere  with 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


37 


the  service  of  the  horse.  A  rounding  or  sickle  hock  is  more 
subject  to  curb  than  one  whose  posterior  side  is  perfectly 
straight.     A  curb  is  illustrated  at  a  in  Fig.  19. 

A  capped  hock  is  the  result  of  an  injury  bruising  the  bursa 
at  the  point  of  the  hock,  and  does  not  ordinarily  interfere 
with  the  horse's  action  or  ability  to  work,  unless  it  involves 
the  synovial  sac,  which  intervenes  between  the  tendon  and 
the  point  of  the  bone  where  the  one  passes  over  the  other. 
Only  in  rare  cases,  such  as  when  there  is  inflamniation  and 
swelling  that  is  painful  to  the  animal,  is  a  capped  hock  con-, 
sidered  an  unsoundness.     A  capped  hock  is  shown  in  Fig.  20. 


Fig.  19 


Fig.  20 


Salanders  is  a  skin  disease  that  occurs  in  the  front  of  the 
hock,  due  to  heavy  feeding  of  nutritious  feed  with  an  insuffi- 
cient amount  of  exercise,  and  constitutes  an  unsoundness. 
A  similar  condition,  called  malanders,  sometimes  occurs  on  the 
front  legs  at  the  back  of  the  knee  in  the  folds  of  the  skin. 

Michigan  pad  is  a  puff,  or  cushion,  due  to  an  enlarged 
bursa;  it  occurs  just  below  the  hock  on  the  outside  of  the 
cannon  near  the  forward  edge.  It  does  not  produce  lameness 
and  it  is  only  a  blemish. 

Grease  is  a  skin  disease  that  may  occur  either  in  the  hind 
heels  or  in  the  front,  and  constitutes  an  unsoundness.     The 


38  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

hind  feet  are  subject  to  laminitis,  thrush,   and  quarter  and 
sand  cracks;  these  have  already  been  explained. 

40.  Examination  of  the  Action. — A  horse  should  be 
examined  in  action,  and  by  watching  every  movement,  slight 
defects  of  conformation  that  may  have  been  passed  unnoticed 
should  be  detected.  The  animal  should  be  walked  directly 
away  from  the  judge  so  that  he  may  note  any  differences  that 
may  exist  in  the  flexion  of  the  hocks.  A  horse  that  has  a  bad 
spavin  is  ordinarily  more  or  less  stiff  in  the  affected  hock,  which 
will  not  be  flexed  so  much  as  the  other.  The  animal  need  not 
be  moved  farther  than  50  yards  and  a  shorter  distance  will 
suffice  where  the  judge  has  become  familiar  in  conducting  such 
examinations.  As  the  animal  turns  the  action  and  flexion  of 
both  hind  legs  should  be  noted  for  evidence  of  string  halt 
and  crampiness. 

The  manner  in  which  the  head  and  ears  are  carried  should 
be  noted.  When  the  horse  is  sound  and  under  normal  con- 
ditions there  is  usually  free  play  of  the  ears  backwards  and 
forwards,  but  if  the  horse  has  defective  sight,  he  exercises  more 
mobility  of  the  ears  and  uses  these  organs  to  help  out  impaired 
vision.  Where  the  sight  is  bad,  one  ear  is  usually  carried 
forwards  and  the  other  back  and  the  head  carried  slightly  to 
one  side,  the  eye  with  the  stronger  vision  being  carried  to  the 
front.  Under  normal  conditions  ears  carried  erect  with  no 
mobility  indicate  defective  hearing  or  deafness,  but  where  a 
horse  is  suffering  severe  pain  or  is  excited  by  anger-  or  fear, 
both  ears  may  be  carried  rigid  and  reclining  backwards. 

A  horse  that  is  slightly  lame  or  sore  in  one  of  the  front  feet 
will  nod  its  head  as  it  places  its  weight  on  the  sound  foot;  if 
it  is  lame  in  one  of  its  hind  legs,  the  croup  will  drop  when  the 
weight  is  thrown  on  the  sound  limb.  If  the  horse  is  lame  in 
both  front  legs  or  in  both  hind  legs,  there  will  not  likely  be 
any  nodding  of  the  head  or  dropping  of  the  croup.  The  action 
should  next  be  observed  from  the  side,  the  judge  noting  the 
length  of  stride  and  the  manner  of  extension  and  flexion  of 
the  limbs,  both  front  and  back,  and  any  overreaching,  forging, 
or  inclination  to  stumble.     A  horse  that  is  sore  or  lame  has  a 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  39 

short  stride  and  sets  his  feet  down  with  great  care.  The 
animal  should  then  be  trotted  and  the  examiner  should  note 
his  movements  from  the  same  position  as  at  the  walk.  As  a 
rule,  lameness  usually  shows  itself  to  a  more  pronounced  degree 
at  the  trot  than  at  the  walk.  No  whip  or  other  method  of 
exciting  the  animal  should  be  used  or  he  may  not  favor  the 
tender  parts. 

41.  Examination  of  the  Wind. — In  testing  the  wind  of  a 
horse  the  method  employed  should  depend  on  the  kind  of 
work  for  which  the  animal  is  used.  Saddle  horses  should  be 
mounted  and  given  a  sharp  run  of  from  200  to  300  yards. 
As  soon  as  the  animal  is  stopped  the  examiner  should  place 
his  ear  to  the  nostrils  and  note  any  imusual  sounds,  such  as 
whistling,  roaring,  etc.,  and  again  note  the  movements  of  the 
flank  for  indications  of  heaves.  Heavy  horses  may  be  satis- 
factorily tested  by  drawing  heavy  loads;  however,  the  custom- 
ary method  at  the  markets  and  with  most  dealers  is  to  hitch 
them  in  harness  and  gallop  them  to  a  heavy  truck  until  they 
are  winded.  As  soon  as  they  are  checked  the  examiner  should 
at  once  place  his  ear  to  the  nostrils,  for  the  purpose  of  detecting 
whistling,  etc. 

ESTIMATING  OF  AGE 

42.  As  age  is  an  important  factor  in  determining  the 
present  or  future  value  of  a  horse,  a  judge  of  horses  should 
be  able  to  estimate,  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy,  the 
age  of  any  horse  that  he  may  be  called  on  to  judge.  A  number 
of  characters  are  influential  in  indicating  age,  and  a  knowledge 
of  these  is  not  difficult  to  secure;  but  skill  in  the  application  of 
this  knowledge  depends  largely  on  continued  practice. 

The  best  index  to  the  age  of  a  horse  is  the  teeth,  yet  there 
are  other  considerations  that  may  be  important,  particularly 
in  the  case  of  a  young  or  very  old  horse.  The  age  of  a  horse 
under  2^  or  3  years  can  usually  be  closely  approximated  by 
the  size  and  general  appearance  of  the  animal.  In  very  old 
horses,  white  hairs  appear  around  the  temples,  the  eyes,  the 
nostrils,  and  elsewhere;  the  poll  is  more  pointed,  the  sides  of 


40  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

the  face  are  more  depressed,  and  the  cavities  above  the  eyes 
are  more  hollowed  out  than  in  young  or  middle-aged  horses; 
the  backbone  is  prominent  and  the  back  is  often  swayed,  that 
is,  curved  downwards,  and  the  animal  does  not  stand  squarely 
on  its  feet.  Another  general  indication  of  old  age  is  the  appear- 
ance of  knots,  or  prominences,  on  the  sides  of  the  tail  near  the 
root.  The  first  pair  of  these  knots  usually  appear  when  a 
horse  is  between  13  and  14  years  old,  and  are  due  to  the  flesh 
withering  away,  leaving  the  transverse  processes  of  the  first 
coccygeal  vertebra  prominent.  The  second  pair  of  knots 
usually  appears  when  a  horse  is  between  16  and  17  years  old, 
and  the  third  pair  when  it  is  about  21  years  old;  the  second 
and  third  pairs  of  knobs  are  due  to  the  transverse  processes  of 
the  second  and  third  coccygeal  vertebrae  becoming  prominent. 

In  estimating  the  age  of  a  horse  by  the  teeth,  only  the 
incisors — the  teeth  immediately  within  the  lips— are  con- 
sidered. The  order  in  which  the  incisors  appear  is  an  index 
of  the  age  up  to  5  years ;  between  the  ages  of  5  and  8  years  the 
age  is  indicated  by  the  configuration  and  degree  of  wear  of  the 
teeth;  after  a  horse  is  8  years  old  its  age  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  estimate  by  the  teeth,  but  the  configuration  and  degree  of 
wear  are  still  an  index.  Experts  can  approximate  the  age  fairly 
well  until  a  horse  is  about  16  or  17  years  old;  after  this  age  it 
is  impossible  to  estimate  the  age  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 

Although  the  teeth  are  considered  the  best  index  of  the  age 
of  a  horse,  they  are  not  absolutely  accurate  in  this  respect 
at  any  age  of  the  animal.  Much  depends  on  the  condition 
under  which  the  animal  has  been  kept  and  its  individuality. 
In  the  case  of  horses  that  have  bones  of  somewhat  open  struc- 
ture, the  teeth  are  likely  to  indicate  that  the  animals  are  older 
than  they  really  are;  in  the  case  of  horses  whose  bones  are  of 
fine,  close  texture,  the  teeth  may  indicate  that  the  animals 
are  younger  than  they  really  are.  A  horse  fed  on  hard,  dry 
feed  is  likely  to  have  teeth  that  show  more  wear  than  those 
of  a  horse  fed  on  soft,  succulent  feed,  and  consequently  the 
teeth  will  indicate  greater  age.  From  this  it  can  be  seen  that 
the  texture  of  the  bones,  the  kind  of  feed  the  horse  has  eaten, 
and  other  conditions  have  more  or  less  effect  on  the  teeth. 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


41 


Appear  i/7Sfo4  c/ays 
Appear  mffoS  vyeeks 
Appear  in  9  fo /Z  monfhs 


43.  Order  of  Appearance  of  the  Teeth. — When  a  colt  is 
foaled  none  of  its  teeth  are  in  sight,  but  the  first,  or  middle, 
pair  of  incisors  in 
both  the  upper  and 
lower  jaws  usually 
appears  in  from  2  to  i 
4  days.  The  second, 
or  intermediate,  pair 
usually  appears  when 
the  colt  is  from  about 
4  to  6  weeks  old,  and  ^'°-  ^^ 

the  third,  or  lateral,  pair  when  it  is  from  about  9  to  12  months 
old;  so  that,  as  a  rule,  when  a  colt  is  1  year  old  it  has 
a  complete  set  of  incisors.  These  first  teeth  are  known 
as  temporary,  or  milk,  teeth.  In  Fig.  21  is  illustrated  the 
order  of  appearance  of  the  milk  teeth,  only  the  upper  pairs 
being  shown;  the  lower  pairs,  of  course,  appear  at  practically 
the  same  time  as  the  corresponding  upper  pairs. 

A  colt  retains  all  of  its  milk  teeth  until  it  is  from  about 
2|  to  3  years  old;  at  about  that  age  the  first  pair  of  milk  teeth 
above  and  below  are  replaced  by  permanent  teeth.  The 
intermediate  pair  of  permanent  teeth  replace  the  corresponding 
pair  of  milk  teeth  when  the  animal  is  from  about  3|  to  4  years 
old,  and  the  third,  or  lateral,  pair  replace  the  last  pair  of  milk 
teeth  when  the  animal   is  from  4|  to  5  years  old.     Fig.  22 


Pig.  22 


Appear /rt  Zz  fo  3 years 
Appear /n3i  fa^^  years 
Appear  If}  4i  foS years 


shows  the  order  of  appearance  of  the  permanent  incisors,  only 
the  upper  teeth  being  shown. 


42 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


44.    Appearance  of  the  Teeth  at  Different  Ages. — When  a 

colt  is  about  a  week  old,  its  first  pair  of  milk  teeth  appears  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  23,  which  5 

shows  only  the  upper  pair.     = 


Fig.  23 


Fig.  2i 


It  can  be  seen  that  these  teeth  are  long  from  left  to  right,  and  that 
they  have  well-defined  cups  or  depressions  in  the  ends.  Fig.  24 
shows  the  appearance  of  the  upper  incisors  when  a  colt  is  from 
about  4  to  6  weeks  old,  or  after  the  second  pair  of  milk  teeth 
has  appeared.  At  this  time  the  first,  or  middle  pair  shows 
wear,  the  cups  having  become  somewhat  shallow.  When  a  colt 
is  about  1  year  old,  or  after  the  third  pair  of  milk  teeth  has 
appeared,  the  upper  incisors  appear  as  shown  in  Fig.  25.  At 
this  age  the  cups  of  the  first  and  second  pairs  show  considerable 
wear,  the  cups  of  the  middle  pair  being  faint  in  outline.  From 
the  time  a  colt  is  1  year  old  until  the  first  pair  of  permanent 

incisors  replace  the  corre- 
sponding pair  of  milk  teeth, 
considerable  care  is  re- 
quired to  estimate  the  age 
accurately.  This  can  be 
done  only  by  taking  into 
account  the  degree  of  wear 
of  the  different  pairs.  In 
Fig.  26  is  shown  the  appear- 
ance of  the  upper  incisors 
when  a  colt  is  2  years  old. 
At  this  age  the  cups  in  the 
middle  pair  have  almost  or  entirely  disappeared,  but  a  little 
discoloration  usually  remains  to  mark  their  boundary. 


Fig.  25 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


43 


45.  As  has  already  been  explained,  the  middle  pair  of 
permanent  incisors  appears  in  from  about  2|  to  3  years.  As 
a  nile,  they  appear  in  from 
about  2  years  and  9  months 
to  2  years  and  1 1  months, 
and  are  fully  out  and  in 
wear  in  3  years.  Fig.  27 
(a)  shows  the  appearance 
of  the  lower  incisors,  if 
normal,  at  this  age;  in  (6) 
is  shown  a  profile  view  of 
the  teeth.  It  can  be  seen 
that  the  middle  pair  of 
permanent  teeth  are  larger 
than  the  milk  teeth .  There 
is  also  a  difference  in  color, 

the  milk  teeth  being  of  a  fine  white  color  and  the  permanent 
teeth  of  a  slightly  yellowish  tinge.  At  this  age  the  intermediate 
milk  teeth  have  become  worn  down  and  have  lost  all  or  nearly 
all  of  their  cups;  there  is  a  slight  dark  indentation  that  can 
hardly  be  called  a  cup.  In  the  lateral,  or  corner,  teeth  the 
cups  are  greatly  worn.     If  the  colt  is  a  male,  small  caps  called 


W 


(b) 


Fig.  27 


tusks  may  be  present  or  in  the  process  of  coming  through  the 
jaw  just  back  of  the  corner  teeth. 


44 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


46.     When  about  3|  years  old,  a  horse  loses  the  interme- 
diate pair  of  milk  teeth  above  and  below,  and  these  are  replaced 


(a) 


(b) 


Fig.  28 


by  permanent  teeth;  when  the  animal  is  4  years  old  the  teeth 
will  appear  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  28.  In  (a)  is  shown  a  view 
of  the  lower  incisors  and  in  (6)  a  profile  view  of  both  the  upper 
and  lower  jaws.  The  middle  incisors  show  more  or  less  wear, 
and  the  last  pair  of  milk  teeth  have  little  left  of  their  cups  but 
a  shallow  indentation.  The  tusks,  if  present,  are  larger  than 
they  were  at  3  years,  but  are  still  sharp  at  the  points. 


(^) 


Fig.  29 


47.     At  about  A\  years  of  age,  a  horse  sheds  the  last,  or 
corner,  pair  of  milk  teeth,  and  by  the  time  the  animal  is  5  years 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


45 


old  the  last  permanent  pair  are  up  to  wearing,  so  that  the  horse 
has  a  full  complement  of  permanent  teeth.  The  appearance 
of  the  incisors  at  this 
age  is  illustrated  in  '  I  -^ 
Fig.  29  (a)  and  (6). 
At  this  age  the  middle 
incisors  show  con- 
siderable wear.  They 
have  also  changed  in 
shape,  having  become 
rounder  on  the  inner 
surface.  The  inter- 
mediate incisors  show 
some  wear. 

When  the  permanent  incisors  first  appear  they  have  cavities 
or  cups  called  crowns;  these  are  similar  to  the  cavities  of  the 
milk  teeth  but  are  deeper.  As  a  horse  becomes  older,  there 
is  a  slight  gro^vth  of  the  teeth  and  a  wearing  away  of  the  crowns. 
The  incisor  teeth  become  longer  and  the  upper  and  lower  sets 
form  an  acute  angle  with  each  other.  When  a  horse  is  6  years 
old  the  middle  pair  of  incisors  have  been  in  wear  3  years  and 
in  that  time  have  grown  out  so  that  the  crowns  are  worn  down 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  cups  have  disappeared  from  the 
lower  pair;  the  cups  disappear  more  rapidly  in  the  lower  than 


Fig.  30 


(a) 


Fig.  31 


Oi) 


in  the  upper  teeth.     The  appearance  of  the  lower  incisors  when 
a  horse  is  6  years  old  is  shown  in  Fig.  30. 


46 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


Fig.  32 


48.  At  7  years  of  age  the  cups  have  disappeared  from  the 
lower  intermediate  pair,  although  small  dark  spots  can  often 

be  seen.  The  comer 
teeth  still  retain  their 
cups,  but  show  con- 
siderable wear.  The 
appearance  of  the  in- 
cisors of  a  7-year-old 
horse  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  31.  In  (a)  is 
shown  a  view  of  the 
lower  teeth  and  in  (6) 
a  profile  view  of  both 
jaws.  At  7  years 
notches  appear  in  each  of  the  upper  corner  teeth,  due  to 
uneven  meeting  with  the  corresponding  lower  teeth;  one  of 
these  notches  is  shown  in  the  tooth  a  in  {b).  At  8  years  of  age 
the  notch  in  the  comer  incisors  is  strongly  marked,  and  the 
cups  of  the  lower  incisors  are  usually  entirely  worn  off,  leaving 
the  tables  smooth  or  flat,  although  irregularities  sometimes 
occur  and  slight  cups  may  still  be  present.  At  this  age  the 
teeth  assume  a  somewhat  triangular  shape.  The  appearance 
of  the  lower  incisors  at  8  years  old  is  shown  in  Fig.  32. 

49.  When  a  horse  is  9  years  old  the  cups  should  have 
disappeared  from  the  upper  central  incisors  _  and  should  be 
shallow  in  the  intermediate  and  comer  pairs.  The  appearance 
of  the  upper  teeth  at  9  years 
of  age  is  shown  in  Fig.  33. 
At  10  years  of  age,  the  cups 
will  have  disappeared  from 
the  upper  intermediates, 
but  may  still  be  seen  in 
the  comer  teeth,  although 
shallow.  The  appearance 
at  10  years  of  age  is  shown 
in  Fig.  34.  When  a  horse  is  11  years  old  all  of  the  cups  will  have 
disappeared  from  the  upper  incisors.     However,  in  the  case  of 


Fig.  33 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


47 


some  horses  that  have  dense  bone,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
cups  in  the  upper  comer  teeth  at  12  and  even  15  years  of  age. 
The  appearance  at  11  years  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  35. 


Fig.  34 


Fig.  35 


50.  After  the  eleventh  year  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to 
estimate  the  age  of  a  horse  by  its  teeth.  However,  the  shape 
and  the  angle  of  the  incisors  usually  indicate  whether  a  horse 
is  just  past  this  age  or  is  considerably  older.  In  Fig.  36  is 
illustrated  the  shape  of  a  permanent  incisor,  the  solid  lines 
indicating  the  position  of  the  wearing  surface  at  successive 
ages,  and  the  cross-sections  showing  how  the  surface  contour 


Cross  -  Secf/ons 


Fig.  36 


changes  with   advancing  years.     Thus,   it  can  be  seen  that 
the  degree  of  triangularity  of  the  teeth  is  a  guide  to  the  age. 


48 


HORSE  JUDGING 


37 


When  a  horse  is  young  the  upper  and  lower  incisors  meet 
nearly  vertical  with  each  other.  As  the  horse  advances  in 
years  the  angle  of  the  incisors  becomes  sharper,  until  in  a 
20-year-old  animal  they  meet  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees. 


(^) 


Fig.  37 


The  appearance  of  the  incisors  at  20  or  21  years  is  shown  in 
Fig.  37.  In  (a)  is  shown  a  view  of  the  lower  teeth  and  in 
{h)  a  profile  view  of  the  jaws. 


HORSE  JUDGING 


EXAMINATION   QUESTIONS 

(1)  What  is  weaving,  and  why  is  it  objectionable? 

(2)  Explain  how  the  eyes  of  a  horse  may  be  tested  for 
defective  vision. 

(3)  What  is  a  wind  gall,  and  under  what  conditions  does 
it  constitute  an  unsoundness  ? 

(4)  Give  the  order  of  appearance  of  the  temporary  incisors 
in  a  colt. 

(5)  Explain  how  the  permanent  incisors  of  a  horse  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  temporary  incisors,  and  give  the  approx- 
imate age  of  the  animal  at  which  each  pair  of  the  permanent 
incisors  appears. 

(6)  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  terms  light  horses  and 
heavy  horses  as  used  in  this  Section. 

(7)  What  constitutes  an  imsoimdness  in  a  horse  ? 

(8)  Name  some  of  the  unsoundnesses  that  disqualify  a 
horse  for  hard  service. 

(9)  Describe  the  appearance  of  a  horse  that  is  coon-footed. 

(10)  What  is  meant  by  quality  as  applied  to  horses? 

(11)  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  term:  (a)  winging; 
(6)  interfering;  (c)  hitching;   (d)  cross-firing;  (e)  forging. 

(12)  Why  is  it  inadvisable  to  clip  the  legs  and  foretops  of 
horses  that  are  to  be  sold  on  a  horse  market  ? 

(13)  Why  are  geldings  usually  preferred  to  mares  for  city 
use? 

§37 


2  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

(14)  What  points  should  be  studied  in  making  a  general 
examination  of  a  horse  ? 

(15)  From  what  positions  can  the  conformation  of  a  horse 
be  best  studied  ? 

(16)  Explain  briefly  what  is  meant  by  the  term:  (a)  buck- 
kneed;  (6)  calf -kneed. 

(17)  How  may  the  quality  of  a  horse  be  judged? 

(18)  Name  the  most  distinctive  temperaments  of  horses. 

(19)  What  two  objects  are  sought  in  making  a  detailed 
examination  of  a  horse? 

(20)  What  is  meant  by  (a)  parrot  mouth;   (b)  undershot 
mouth  ? 


I 


SUPPLIES    FOR    STUDENTS 

In  order  to  do  good  work,  it  is  very  necessary  for  our  students  to  secure  the  best 
materials,  instruments,  etc.  used  in  their  Courses.  We  have  often  found  that  inexperi- 
enced students  have  paid  exorbitant  prices  for  inferior  supplies,  and  their  progress  has 
been  greatly  retarded  thereby.  To  insure  our  students  against  such  error,  arrangements 
have  been  made  with  the  Technical  Supply  Company,  of  Scranton,  Pa.,  to  furnish  such  as 
desire  them  with  all  the  supplies  necessary  in  the  different  Courses. 

SEE  PRICES  ON  SEPARATE  LIST 
LIGHT-WEIGHT  PRINTED  ANSWER  PAPER 

With  printed  headings  especially  adapted  for  use  of  students  of  the  I.C.S.  _  Size 
i%"xl4".  This  paper  is  very  tough,  durable,  and  has  a  fine  writing  surface.  It  will  last 
for  years,  and  the  student  is  thus  enabled  to  keep  a  i^ermanent  record  of  the  work  sent  to 
the  Schools. 

I.C.S.  COLD-PRESSED  DRAWING  PAPER 

Size  lS"x20".  Buff  color — easy  on  the  eyes.  It  is  unusually  strong  and  tough;  takes 
a  clean,  clear  line;  is  not  brittle;  is  not  easily  soiled.     Best  for  both  ink  and  pencil. 

"TESCO"  TRACING  CLO.TH 

Used  extensively  by  draftsmen,  architects,  engineers,  and  contractors — a  high  recom- 
mendation of  quality.  It  is  transparent,  strong,  free  from  knots  and  other  imperfections 
and  contains  no  air  bubbles.  I.C.S.  instructors  assure  their  students  it  is  thoroughly 
dependable.     Furnished  in  sheets  15"x20". 

PORTFOLIOS 

For  keeping  your  Examination  Papers  and  drawing  plates  neat  and  clean  and  in  order. 
Don't  roll  them  up  and  then  forget  where  they  are,  or  leave  them  where  thej'  will  become 
soiled  or  damaged.     Some  of  these  days  an  employer  may  ask  to  see  them. 

"TESCO"  LIQUID  DRAWING  INK 

"Tesco"   Ink  flows  smoothly  and  evenly  from  the  pen  and  leaves  a  clear,  sharp  line  of 
uniform  intensity,  free  from  cracks  and  bubbles. 

FOUNTAIN  PENS 

As  answers  to  Examination  Questions  must  be  written  in  ink,  you  can,  with  a  fountain 
pen,  answer  your  papers  any  time — anywhere — whether  it  is  in  the  office,  shop,  factory, 
or  home. 

DICTIONARIES 

No  matter  which  Course  you  are  studying,  no  matter  what  kind  of  work  you  do,  a 
dictionary  is  valuable.  Keep  it  near  you  when  you  read  and  when  you  study.  Don't  skip 
the  words  you  don't  understand;  look  them  up,  for  that  is  the  best  way  to  acquire  a 
vocabulary. 

RUBBER  HAND  STAMPS 

Stamp  your  name,  address,  and  class  letters  and  number  on  every  lesson  and  drawing 
you  send  to  the  Schools.     Useful  for  marking  envelopes,  books,  papers,  etc. 

DRAWING  OUTFITS 

The  I.C.S.  Outfits  are  not  simply  "gotten  up"  to  provide  something  for  the  student  to 
use  during  his  Course.  These  Outfits  will  last  long  after  he  has  gotten  into  actual  work. 
They   are  practical   Outfits — made   up   from   specifications   furnished   by   I.C.S.    Instructors. 

Xaturally,  then,  such  Outfits  must  be  right.  _  All  instruments  must  be  of  a  high 
quality  to  give  long  and  efficient  service.  All  material  must  be  honest,  sincere,  depeildable. 
"The  busy  man  cannot  be  annoyed  with  poor  material,  and  the  student  must  not  be  retarded 
by  the  use  of  it. 

COMBINATION  DRAWING  AND  STUDY  TABLE 

The  table  is  made  of  oak,  and  can  be  folded  and  placed  out  of  the  way;  and,  although 
4t  weighs  but  19j/^  pounds,  it  will  support  a  direct  weight  of  200  pounds.  The  braces  are 
of  nickeled  rolled  steel. 

CATALOGS 

Any  of  the  following  catalogs  will  be  mailed  free  on  application  to  the  Technical 
Supply  Co.: 

Drawing  Instruments  and  Materials,  Practical  Books  Relating  to  Architecture  and 
Building  Trades,  Practical  Books  Relating  to  Electricity,  Practical  Books  Relating  to 
Mechanical  and  Civil  Engineering,  Practical  Books  Relating  to  Mining,  Metallurgy,  and 
Chemistry, 

Send  orders  to  TECHNICAL  SUPPLY  COMPANY,  Scranton,  Pa. 

SEE  PRICES  ON  SEPARATE  LIST 


